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LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


School  Architecture 


A    General    Treatise   for    the   use   of 
Architects   and   Others 


Edmund    March   Wheelwright 

Fellow  Boston  Society  of  Architects 
Fellow  American  Institute  of  Architects 


Mttb  H)e6criptivc  1IUu6tration0 


BOSTON 

ROGERS   &   MANSON 

1901 


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Copyright,  1901 
By  Edmund  March  Wheelwright 


The 
Barta 
Press 
Boston 


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Preface. 


In  this  book  a  general  view  is  given  of  typical  .examples  of  the  schools  in 
most  of  the  countries  in  which  public  education  is  well  developed.  The 
writer  has  sought  to  keep  within  the  province  of  the  architect,  and  not  to 
trespass  upon  that  of  the  educator,  or  of  the  engineering,  sanitary,  or  hygienic 
expert.  His  object  has  been  to  compile  a  compact  handbook,  useful  for 
architects  and  others  who  are  interested  in  the  subject ;  hence,  in  most  cases 
he  has  avoided  detailed  descriptions  of  buildings,  as  the  plans  and  other 
illustrations  would  appear  to  furnish  all  further  necessary  data.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  idea  references  in  the  index  are  made  to  some  features  of  the 
plans  which  are  not  mentioned  in  the  text. 

Much  of  the  material  is  drawn  from  published  sources ;  especially  from 
"  Handbuch  der  Architektur,"  Vol.  IV.,  and  Appendix  No.  VIII.  of  the 
same  publication.  Vol.  IV.  was  jointly  written  by  Prof.  Dr.  Josef  Durm, 
Karlsruhe ;  Prof.  Hermann  Ende,  Berlin ;  Prof.  Dr.  Eduard  Schmitt, 
and  Prof.  Heinrich  Wagner,  both  of  Darmstadt ;  and  the  Appendix,  which 
treats  of  Scandinavian  schools,  by  Carl  Hintrager,  architect,  Vienna.  Chapter 
III.  of  this  book  is  a  free  and  condensed  translation  of  Herr  Hintrager's 
work. 

Interesting  examples  have  been  found  in  Klasen's  "  Grundriss-Vorbilder 
von  Schulgebauden  "  ;  in  Narjou's  "  L'Ecole  Public " ;  in  "  Schulhausen 
Basel's  " ;  and  in  "  Le  Figaro  Illustre." 

"  School  Architecture,"  by  E.  R.  Robson,  F.  R.  I.  B.  A.,  published  in  London 
in  1874,  has  also  furnished  material.  At  time  of  its  publication  this  book 
covered  the  subject  more  completely  than  had  been  done  in  any  previous 
work.  Its  title  was  an  inheritance  from  a  book  by  H.  Barnard,  Esq.,  Super- 
intendent of  Connecticut  Schools,  which  was  published  in  1854. 

Among  those  whose  writings  have  furnished  assistance  the  writer  would 
thank  for  this  aid,  and  for  that  which  they  have  rendered  him  personally: 
Dr.  Wm.  Garnett,  Secretary  of  the  Technical  Education  Board  of  the  London 
County  Council ;  Michael  E.  Sadler,  Esq.,  Librarian  of  the  Education  Depart- 
ment of  England  and  Wales;  C.  H.  Wyatt,  Esq.,  Clerk  of  the  School  Board, 
Manchester,  England. 


iv  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Among  those  in  this  country  by  whose  writings  he  has  been  helped  are 
Frederick  Tudor,  Esq.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  Profs.  F.  W.  Chandler  and  J. 
Homer  Woodbridge,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  and  Frank 
A.  Hill,  Esq.,  Secretary  of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education. 

The  greater  part  of  Chapter  IX.  is  taken  from  the  last  report  of  Dr.  Charles 
W.  Parmenter,  master  of  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston,  and  F.  W. 
Howard,  Esq.,  heating  and  ventilating  engineer  of  the  same  city,  has  given 
very  great  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  Chapter  XL 

Others  to  whom  the  writer  is  indebted  for  valuable  aid  are :  Prof.  Dr.  Walther 
Hempel,  Dresden ;  Herr  A.  Lindemann,  Kgl.  Baurath,  Stadt  Bauinspektor, 
Berlin ;  W.  H.  Ostler,  Esq.,  Clerk  of  the  School  Board,  Halifax,  England ; 
Franklin  Hubbard,  Esq.,  Business  Manager  of  Toledo  School  Board,  Toledo, 
Ohio;  C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Esq.,  Superintendent  of  School  Buildings,  New  York 
City ;  John  P.  Fox,  Esq.  and  Dr.  E.  M.  Hartwell,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  many 
architects  and  school  officials  who  have  furnished  data  and  drawings. 

Boston,  August,  1901.  E.  M.  W. 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  I. 
General  Requirements  and  Features  of  Schools. 

Selection  of  sites  —  Orientation  —  Ornamentation  of  school  yards  — 
School  gardens  —  Yard  enclosures  —  Planting  of  trees  —  Entrances  — 
Staircases  —  Co-education  affecting  school  planning  —  Doors  —  Upper 
flooring — Basement  flooring — Dadoes  —  Wood  finish  to  be  avoided  as 
much  as  possible  —  Certain  features  of  hospital  construction  desirable  in 
schools  —  Blackboards  —  Wall  painting  —  Picture  molding  —  Clothing  dis- 
posal —  Janitor's  and  master's  quarters  —  Master's  office  and  teachers' 
rooms  —  Location  of  toilet  rooms  —  Location  of  gymnasiums  and  boiler 
rooms  —  Mill  construction  —  Fire-proof  floors  —  Lining  brick  —  Interior 
partitions  —  Fire-stopping  —  Wire-lathed  ceilings  —  Danger  of  fire  from 
basement  —  Use  of  incombustible  materials  in  construction  —  Height  of 
schools  —  Probable  future  use  of  elevators  —  Expense  entailed  by  small 
city  schools  —  A  dangerously  constructed  and  unhygienic  school  —  Very 
low  cost  entails  sacrifice  of  desirable  features —  Relative  cost  of  architect- 
ural vs.  utilitarian  construction —  Architectural  design  in  schools  should  be 
strictly  limited  by  the  practical  conditions  —  Such  limitation  does  not  pre- 
clude good  designing Pages     1-17 

CHAPTER  II. 
Elementary   Schools    of    Germany,   Austria,    Switzerland,    and 
France. 

Development  of  popular  education  in  Germany  and  adjacent  countries  — 
Likeness  of  the  school  plans  of  all  Teutonic  countries  —  Classification  of 
elementary  schools  —  Janitor's  quarters  —  Clothing  disposal  —  Co-educa- 
tion —  Grades  in  Swiss  elementary  schools  —  Masters'  quarters  —  Village 
school  of  the  Oberland,  Switzerland  —  Gemeindeschule  in  the  Wilms- 
Strasse,  Berlin  —  Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin  —  Untere  Realschule, 
Basel  —  Spalenschule,  Basel  —  A  Munich  school  —  Bezirksschule  on  Scharn- 
horst-Strasse,  Leipsic  —  Another  Berlin  Gemeindeschule  —  School  on  Wit- 
telsbacher-Strasse,  Munich  —  St.  John's  School,  Basel  —  School  at  St.  Paul, 
near  Hamburg —  Mixed  school  at  Mannheim  and  one  of  same  plan  type  at 
Dresden  —  Willemer  and  Frankensteiner  School,  Frankfort  —  Bezirksschule 
on  the  Gartenfront,  Mayence — School  at  Winterthur,  Switzerland  —  A 
Buda-Pesth  school  —  A  Munich  School  —  School  at  Vevey,  Switzerland  — 
Left-hand  Hghting  only  not  always  provided  in  Switzerland;  examples: 
schools  at  Winterthur,  Aarau,  and  Basel — Madchen-Mittelschule,  Darm- 
stadt —  School  at  Stuttgart  compared  with  Bezirksschule  on  Pestalozzi- 
Strasse,  Dresden  —  Rules  of  French  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction 
regarding  class  rooms  —  Landscape  gardening  of  school  yards  in  France  — 
Peculiar  arrangement  of  class  rooms  in  some  French  mixed  schools  —  Salles 
d'Asile  —  Covered  playgrounds  —  A  French  school  for  girls  —  A  French 
mixed  school Pages  18-44 


Vi  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

CHAPTER  III. 
Elementary  Schools  of  Scandinavian  Countries. 

Development  of  popular  education  —  Classification  of  schools  —  Co-edu- 
cation—Absence of  official  regulations  governing  the  construction  of 
schools  —  Gymnasium  exercises  —  Domestic  training  schools  —  Sloyd  train- 
ing—Sloyd  rooms  — A  one-story  Danish  school  —  Construction  of  a 
wooden  Finnish  school  — School  at  Lindholmen,  Sweden  —  School  at  Norr- 
koeping,  Sweden  —  School  at  Gceteberg,  Sweden  —  School  at  Gesle, 
Sweden—  Johannes  School,  Stockholm  —  School  at  Trondhjem,  Norway  — 
Vaalerengens  School,  Christiania  —  Grunerlokhen  School,  a  typical  example 
for  Christiania  —  School  at  Odense,  Copenhagen  —  School  at  Frederiks- 
berg,  Denmark  — The  Copenhagen  school  type  ;  examples:  St.  Hansgade, 
Larslejstraede.  and  Jagtvejen  schools;  Oehlenschlaegergade  school  excep- 
tional —  School  at  Wiborg,  Finland  —  General  character  of  Scandinavian 
schools Pages  45-65 

CHAPTER  IV. 

English  Elementary  Schools. 

Development  of  popular  education  in  England  — The  hall  — The  ancient 
"grammar  school "  —  "  Banks  "  —  Retention  of  features  of  the  ancient  pro- 
totype of  the  '-grammar  school"  —  Clothing  disposal—  Dadoes  —  Rules  of 
education  department  regulating  the  lighting  of  class  rooms  —  Windows  — 
Cubic  feet  of  air  per  pupil  —  Stepping  of  class  room  floors  —  Fire-proof 
construction  —  Blackboards  for  pupils  not  provided  —  Upper  flooring  — 
Location  of  schools  and  their  yards  — Janitor's  and  master's  quarters  — 
Classification  of  elementary  schools  —  Mixed  schools  — The  Birchfield 
Road  Board  School,  Liverpool  —  The  Cobbold  Road  School,  Chelsea, 
London  —  Use  of  sliding  partitions  between  class  rooms  —  Plans  tend  to  a 
development  like  that  of  American  schools Pages  66-77 

CHAPTER  V. 

Elementary  Schools  of  the  United  States. 

Development  of  popular  education  in  the  United  States —  Effect  of  Eng- 
lish tradition  —  Classification  of  schools  —  Economic  disadvantage  of 
primary  schools  —  Dimensions  for  class  rooms  —  Co-education  —  Assembly 
halls  —  Certain  Boston  primary  schools  :  Williams,  Eustis,  and  Andrews  — 
Sewall  School,  Brookline,  Mass.  —  Features  of  grammar  grade  schools  — 
Manual  training  in  this  grade  —  Assembly  halls  constant  in  large  grammar 
grade  schools  —  School  at  Hopedale,  Mass.  —  Roger  Ludlow  School,  Wind- 
sor, Conn.  —  Winthrop  School,  New  London,  Conn.  —  Pierce  School, 
Brookline,  Mass.  —  Peirce  and  Bigelow  Schools,  Newton,  Mass.  —  Brooks 
School,  Medford,  Mass.  —  Eugene  Field,  Sherman,  and  Eliot  Schools,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  —  Auburndale,  Lagrange,  and  Waite  .Schools,  Toledo,  Ohio  — 
George  Dewey  School,  Chicago  —  New  Brown  School,  Hartford,  Conn.  — 
Robert  Gould  Shaw,  Christopher  Gibson,  Gilbert  Stuart,  and  Bowdoin 
Schools,  Boston  —  Mayhew  School,  Boston  —  Paul  Revere  School;  Bos- 
ton —  Conditions  affecting  schools  in  New  York  City  —  Construction  of 
New  York  City  schools  —  New  York  City  Public  School  No.  165  —  Letter 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

H  plan  —  Basements  of  New  York  City  schools  utilized  only  for  toilet  room, 
etc.  —  First,  or  ground  floor,  of  New  York  City  schools  used  almost  exclu- 
sively for  indoor  playrooms  —  SUding  partitions  between  class  rooms  — 
Attics  of  New  York  City  schools  used  for  gymnasiums,  manual  training 
rooms,  etc. —  New  York  City  PubHc  School  No.  153  —  Wardrobes  not 
provided  in  New  York  City  schools  —  Roof  playgrounds     .        .        Pages  78-122 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Comparison  of  Features  of  Elementary  Schools. 

The  separate  graded  class  system  derived  from  Teutonic  countries  —  The 
English  system  —  The  aula  vs.  assembly  hall  —  Warming  and  ventilating 
not  highly  developed  in  Swiss  and  American  schools —  Methods  of  clothing 
disposal  —  Dimensions  of  class  rooms  —  Single  desks  vs.  double  desks  and 
forms  —  Dimensions  of  class  rooms  in  Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin,  and 
m  Boston  grammar  grade  schools —  Dr.  Risley's  advice  as  to  cubical  area 
per  pupil  and  dimensions  of  class  rooms  —  Lighting  of  class  rooms  —  Light- 
ing of  corner  class  rooms  —  Desks  for  primary  and  grammar  grades  — 
Widths  of  class  rooms  required  for  placing  desks  for  classes  of  various  sizes  — 
Class-room  height  in  New  York  City  schools  —  Defective  lighting  of  class 
rooms  28  ft.  wide  —  A  sufficiently  satisfactory  width  and  height  for  class 
rooms  —  Probable  use  of  elevators  in  city  schools  —  Roof  playgrounds  — 
The  De  Lancey  School,  Philadelphia —  Right-hand  windows  in  France  not 
used  for  lighting  —  Rule  for  lighting  class  rooms  of  Board  of  Education 
of  England  and  Wales  —  Lighting  of  corner  rooms  in  Switzerland  often 
from  two  sides  —  Seldom  in  Germany  and  Austria  and  in  later  Scandina- 
vian schools  —  When  class  rooms  are  28  ft.  wide  windows  required  in  corner 
rooms  for  sufficient  hghting  —  Light  in  wall  opposite  desk  disadvantageous 
to  teachers'  eyesight —  Difficulty  of  satisfactory  arrangement  of  seatings  in 
certain  corner  rooms  —  The  "  cart-wheel  "  plan  —  Longfellow  School,  Bos- 
ton, Mass.  —  Features  of  American  schools  compared  with  those  of  other 
countries  —  28  ft.  width  of  class  rooms  an  inferiority  —  Narrower  class 
rooms  more  economical  in  construction  —  Sizes  of  classes  should  be  reduced 
if  essential  improvement  is  to  be  made  in  plans  of  American  schools  — 
DesirabiHty  of  retaining  other  features  where  American  schools  are  gener- 
ally superior  to  those  of  other  countries  —  The  experiment  of  smaller  classes 
should  be  tried Pages  123-141 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Secondary  Schools  of  Northern  Europe  and  England. 

Development  of  the  German  secondary  school  system  —  Essential  simi- 
larity of  the  plans  of  secondary  schools  in  Teutonic  countries  —  Ampler 
provisions  for  teaching  the  sciences,  drawing,  etc.,  in  the  Realschule  than 
the  Gymnasium  —  The  "Turnhalle"  an  invariable  feature  in  Teutonic  sec- 
ondary schools —  Gymnasium  at  Gottingen  —  The  Vorschule  —  The  "car- 
eer"—  Cantonal  School,  Berne  —  Gymnasium,  Salzwedel,  Prussia  — 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,  Aix-la-Chapelle  —  Realschule,  Karlsruhe  — 
Konig  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,  Stettin  —  Gymnasium,  Bromberg — Oberreal- 
schule,  Leitomischl  —  Realschule,  Magdeburg  —  Gymnasium,  Hilde- 
sheim  —  Realgymnasium,    Karlsruhe  —  Leibnitz    Realschule,    Hanover  — 


Vlll  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Realschule,  Leipsic-Reudnitz  —  Tochterschule,  Basel  —  Annen  Realschule, 
Dresden  —  Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  Bernburg  — French  second- 
ary school  plans  similar  to  those  of  elementary  schools  of  that  country  — 
Secondary  schools  of  England  not  thoroughly  or  comprehensively  organ- 
ized —  The  English  secondary  school  system  —  Central  School,  Man- 
chester—  Cassland  Road  Higher  Grade  School,  London— Dudley  New 
Grammar  School — Technical  and  Secondary  School,  Chippenham  — 
Education  of  pupil-teachers — Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers'  Center,  Offord 
Road,  London  —  Slight  influence  of  Teutonic  secondary  schools  on  those 
of  England Pages  142-177 

CHAPTER  VIH. 
Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States. 

Origin  and  development  of  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States  — 
English  influence — Latin  and  English  High  School,  Boston  —  Important 
in  history  of  development  of  school  architecture  in  America — Its  main 
features  suggested  by  the  Akademische  Gymnasium,  Vienna  —  Description 
of  the  Boston  school  —  American  high  schools  often  but  an  elaborated 
development  of  the  graded  grammar  schools  —  High  school,  Cambridge, 
Mass. :  Hospital  or  emergency  rooms ;  Lunch  rooms  —  Latin  school, 
Cambridge,  Mass.  —  High  school,  Brookline,  Mass. :  Bicycle  rooms  — 
High  school,  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  —  High  school,  Springfield,  Mass.  —  High 
school,  Newark.  N.  J.  —  High  school,  New  Britain,  Conn.  —  Groton 
School  —  Present  tendency  to  differentiate  the  high  from  grammar  school 
plan,  shown  in  Mechanic  Arts  High,  Brighton  High,  South  Boston  High 
Schools,  Boston;  Girls'  High  School,  New  York  City,  Central  High  School, 
Toledo,  Ohio  —  Large  general  schoolrooms  instead  of  single-graded 
class  rooms  —  General  cloak  rooms  instead  of  separate  wardrobes  adjoin- 
ing each  class  room  —  Clothing  lockers  —  Some  further  considerations  for 
high  school  planning —  Desks  —  The  probable  future  development  in  plan- 
ning of  American  schools  to  be  from  that  of  the  high  school     .        Pages  178-214 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Manual  Training  and  Mechanic  Arts  High  Schools. 

Scope  of  these  schools  —  Clumsy  distinguishing  names  used  —  General 
features  and  equipment  —  The  latest  and  most  complex  development  of 
American  secondary  schools  —  Similar  schools  in  other  countries  designed 
to  teach  trades  —  Tendency  now  in  England  to  make  them  more  educa- 
tional—  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School — Dr.  Woodward's  criticism 
of  same  —  Toledo  Manual  Training  School  —  Cambridge  (Mass.)  Manual 
Training  School  —  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Dr.  Par- 
menter's  report :  —  In  basement:  forge  shop,  locker  rooms,  lunch  counter, 
etc.  —  On  first  floor :  master's  office,  chemical  laboratory,  two  schoolrooms, 
three  recitation  rooms,  machine  shop,  etc.  — On  second  floor:  physical 
laboratory,  two  schoolrooms,  two  wood-working  rooms,  etc.—  On  third  floor : 
three  schoolrooms,  two  drawing  rooms,  wood-turning  and  pattern-making 
room,  modeling  room,  etc.  —  Drawing  tables  —  Instruments  supplied 
pupils  —  Movable  blackboards  —  Equipment  of  wood-working  room :  double 
benches,  tool   boards,  tools,  etc.  —  Grindstone  troughs  — Tool    room  — 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Check  system  used  in  disbursing  tools  —  Tools  in  tool  room —  Room  for 
preparation  of  models  —  Wood-turning  and  pattern-making  rooms :  benches, 
individual  tools,  tools  used  in  common  —  Grindstones  and  pattern-maker's 
.  lathe  —  Small  tool  room — Loft  for  storage  of  lumber  —  Amphitheater  — 
Sinks  and  mirrors  —  Drawing  tables — Master-keyed  locks  for  drawers  — 
Forge  shop  —  Down  draft  forges  —  Equipment  of  pupils'  forges  —  Anvils  — 
Tools  on  tool  benches  —  Tool  benches  and  their  equipment —  Demonstra- 
tion platform  —  Instructor's  forge  and  its  equipment — Machine  shop: 
benches,  tool  tray  and  tools  therein,  tools  in  upper  drawer  of  bench  — 
Machine  tools  in  forge  shop — Tool  room  —  Principal  small  tools  —  Stock 
room  —  Industrial  schools  of  Europe  —  Sunday  and  Holiday  manual  train- 
ing schools  for  apprentices  and  journeymen  in  Germany  —  German 
Special  Industrial  Schools  —  Special  schools  for  mechanics  —  Other  Ger- 
man special  schools  —  Few  points  of  similarity  in  European  elementary 
industrial  schools — Use  of  rooms  in  other  schools  for  industrial  instruc- 
tion—  Industrial  school  at  Worms  —  State  Industrial  School  at  Inns- 
bruck—  School  for  Apprentices  at  Rouen  —  Weaving  School  at  Miilheim  — 
Watch  and  Clock  Making  School,  Paris  —  Industrial  schools  for  women  — 
Higher  industrial  schools  are  outside  the  scope  of  this  book  —  Royal 
Weaving  School,  Crefeld,  Germany — Mr.  Edwin  P.  Seaver  on  industrial 
education  in  America     .        . Pages  215-250 

CHAPTER  X. 
Training  Schools  for  Teachers. 

Somewhat  outside  the  scope  of  this  book,  having  a  certain  collegiate  char- 
acter —  Called  "  Normal "  schools  in  the  United  States  —  Features  of  Normal 
school  plan  —  Model  departments  —  Assembly  or  study  rooms  —  Rooms 
for  special  instruction  —  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass.  —  State 
Normal  School,  North  Adams,  Mass.  —  State  Normal  School,  Lowell, 
Mass.  —  State  Normal  School,  New  Haven,  Conn.  —  Women  Teachers' 
Seminary,  Berlin  —  Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  Auxerre,  France.  Pages  251-262 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Heating,  Ventilation,  and  Sanitation. 

Expert  service  for  heating  and  ventilation  not  to  be  expected  from  archi- 
tects —  Experts  should  be  employed  upon  such  work,  and  at  owner's 
expense  —  Proper  temperature  for  class  rooms — Low  temperature  per- 
mitted in  English  class  rooms  —  Gravity  and  mechanical  systems  of  ventila- 
tion—  Vent  flue  heating  with  gravity  system  —  Two  systems  of  mechanical 
ventilation  :  exhaust  fan  and  plenum  fan  —  Movement  of  air  may  be  upward 
or  downward  —  The  latter  a  convenient  expedient  in  certain  cases  —  Two 
systems  of  heating:  "distributed"  and  "central" —  Heating  by  stoves  and 
fireplaces  disadvantageous  —  Two  systems  of  central  heating  :  "  direct " 
and  "  indirect "  —  The  first  by  coils  and  radiators  —  Four  methods  of 
indirect  heating :  hot  air  furnaces,  "  direct-indirect,"  "  indirect,"  "  plenum 
fan  "  —  Three  fan  systems :  central  heating  coil,  tempering  coil  with  radia- 
tors at  base  of  ducts,  double  air  ducts  with  mixing  dampers  at  ducts  — 
Direct  heating  unsuitable  unless  united  with  a  fan  system  —  Direct-indirect 
unsuitable  —  Furnace  heating  preferable  to  direct  heating  —  Furnaces  suit- 


X  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

able  only  for  small  schools  —  Disadvantages  of  furnaces  —  Furnaces  should 
have  auxiliary  hot-water  coils  —  Fresh  air  ducts  should  be  above  ground  — 
Plaster  block  preferable  to  galvanized  iron  ducts— Indirect  heating,  with- 
out fan,  united  with  gravity  ventilation  — Indirect  system  as  above  more  , 
uncertain  and  less  economical  than  when  fan  is  used  —  Difficulty  of 
results  in  moderate  weather  with  indirect  system  without  fan  —  Such  a 
system  only  advisable  where  skilled  engineer  cannot  be  employed  —  Fan 
system  without  direct  radiation  or  temperature  control  only  suitable  for 
factories—  Direct  heating  in  conjunction  with  fan  systems  —  Heating  dur- 
ing early  morning  hours  —  Air  supply  from  outside  only  during  school 
hours  —  Mixing  dampers  —  Dr.  J.  S.  Billings'  suggestion  for  alarm 
thermometers  —  Thermometers  in  Berlin  schools  —  Area  of  air  inlets  and 
outlets  —  Location  of  inlets  and  outlets  —  Foot  warmers  —  Summer  ventila- 
tion —  Diffusers  —  Filtering  and  washing  of  air  in  English  schools  —  Move- 
ment of  air  from  corridors  to  class  rooms  —  Ventilation  of  toilet  rooms 
through  fixtures  —  Ventilation  shafts  —  Steam  heating  —  Gravity  system  of 
steam  heating  —  Steam  traps  and  pumps  —  Hot  water  vs.  steam  heating  — 
Hot-water  heating  with  fan  power  by  gas  engines  in  English  schools  — 
Table  of  boiler  and  boiler  flue  dimensions  —  Table  of  capacities  for  chim- 
neys —  Heating  surfaces  for  direct  radiation  —  No  general  rules  for  radia- 
tion with  fan  systems  —  School  furnaces  —  Grate  dimensions  for  furnaces  — 
Heating  and  ventilation  of  Swiss  schools  —  Of  European  and  English 
schools  —  Comparison  of  areas  of  vent  outlets  —  Minimum  air  inlets 
in  England  —  Location  of  toilet  rooms  —  Location  in  basement  no  menace 
to  health  if  properly  constructed,  ventilated,  and  shut  off — Necessity  of 
heating  sanitaries,  and  of  their  constant,  strong  ventilation  —  Aspirating 
shafts  —  Proper  construction  of  soil  piping  —  Proper  types  of  plumbing 
fixtures  —  Urinals  —  Sinks  preferable  to  set  bowls  —  Brick  latrines  —  Their 
use  not  advisable — Iron  water-closet  ranges — Their  disadvantages  — 
Separate  water-closets  preferable  —  Water-closets  —  Number  of  water- 
closets  and  urinals  per  pupil  —  Earth  closets  best  for  schools  without  sewer 
connection  —  Advantages  of  same  over  "  dry  "  systems  —  Barrel  system 
objectionable  —  Privy  vaults  not  to  be  considered  —  Cesspools  —  School 
baths  —  Plunges  —  German  bathing  rooms  —  American  schools  equipped 
with  bath  rooms  —  Description  of  those  in  Paul  Revere  School,  Boston, 
Mass.  —  German  method  the  probable  model  for  American  schools  — 
Advantages  of  school  bathing  —  Voluntary  and  compulsory  use  of  baths  — 
Janitor  service  —  Recommendations  of  Mr.  Philbrick  not  followed  in  Boston 
—  Rules  for  janitors  in  Toledo,  Ohio  —  In  Saxony     .        .        .        Pages  263-284 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Specifications  for  an  American  School. 

General  requirements  —  Excavation  —  Pile  driving  —  Foundations  : 
stone,  concrete  —  Cement  —  Lime  —  Sand  —  Mortar  —  Brickwork  —  Con- 
creting—  Sidewalks  and  yard  paving—  Cut  granite  —  Other  exterior  stone 
work —  North  River  stone  —  Stone  setting  —  Carving  —  Asphalt  —  Steel 
and  iron  work  and  fire-proof  construction  —  Interior  slate  and  marble 
work  —  Roofing  and  metal  work  —  Metal  vents,  heat  ducts,  and  registers  — 
Lathing  and  plastering  —  Carpentry  —  Staircase  work  —  Upper  floors  — 
Hardware  —  Gas  piping  —  Painting  and  glazing      ....        Page      285 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Page. 

Lycde  Moli^re,  Paris;  Principal  Courtyard 2 

Lyc^e  Moli^re,  Paris;  Covered  Playground 3 

Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin ;  Block  Plan 3 

School  at  Augsburg ;  Block  Plan 4 

Lycde  Racine,  Paris;  Staircase 5 

Brighton  High  School,  Boston,  Mass 15 

Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin 19 

One-class  German  Village  School ;  Plans 21 

Village  School  in  the  Oberland,  Switzerland 21 

Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin;  Plans 22 

Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin  ;  Plans 23 

Village  School  in  the  Oberland,  Switzerland  ;  Plan 24 

Spalenschule,  Basel,  Switzerland;  Plans 24 

Gemeindeschule  in  the  Wilms-Strasse,  Berlin;  Plans 25 

School  in  the  Mariahilsplatz,  Munich ;  Plan 26 

Spalenschule,  Basel,  Switzerland 26 

Untere  Realschule,  Basel,  Switzerland 27 

Bezirksschule,  Scharnhorst-Strasse,  Leipsic  ;  Plan 28 

Bezirksschule,  Scharnhorst-Strasse,  Leipsic 28 

Gemeindeschule,  Berlin;  Plans 29 

School  on  Wittelsbacher-Strasse,  Munich  ;  Plan 30 

St.  John's  School,  Basel,  Switzerland;  Plan           . 30 

School  on  Seiler-Strasse,  St.  Paul,  near  Hamburg;  Plan 31 

Mixed  School  at  Mannheim  ;  Plan 31 

School  on  Seiler-Strasse,  St.  Paul,  near  Hamburg 32 

Biirgerschule,  Dresden  ;  Plan 33 

Burgerschule,  Dresden 33 

Willemer  and  Frankensteiner  School,  Frankfort ;  Plan 34 

Bezirksschule  on  the  Gartenfront,  Mayence  ;  Plan 34 

School  at  Winterthur,  Switzerland ;  Plan 35 

School  at  Buda-Pesth,  Hungary ;  Plan 35 

School  at  Munich ;  Plan 36 

School  at  Munich -37 

School  at  Vevey,  Switzerland  ;  Plan 37 

School  at  Winterthur,  Switzerland ;  Plan 38 

School  at  Aarau,  Switzerland  ;  Plan 38 

Madchen-Mittelschule,  Darmstadt ;  Plan 39 

School  at  Stuttgart ;  Plan 39 

Bezirksschule  on  the  Pestalozzi-Strasse,  Dresden  ;  Plan 40 

Mixed  Single  Class  French  School ;  Plan 41 

Salle  d'Asile,  Etienne,  Limoges,  France  ;  Plan 42 

French  Girls'  School;  Plan 42 

Mixed  School,  Paris;  Plans 43 

Street  facade  of  a  Parisian  Secondary  School 44 

Gymnasium  of  the  Maria  Kirchspiels  School,  Stockholm,  Sweden  ;  Plan    .        .  47 

School  Kitchen  in  the  Moellergadens  School,  Christiania,  Norway ;  Plan    .        .  48 

Cooking  Class,  Christiania,  Norway 49 


xii  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Page. 

Sloyd  Bench  used  in  the  Mikkelsen  System 51 

School  at  Nyborg,  Denmark ;  Plan 51 

School  at  Nyborg,  Denmark ;  Elevation .        .  52 

Section  showing  Construction  of  Floors  and  Wall  of  a  Log  School  in  Finland  .  53 

School  at  Lindholmen,  Sweden  ;  Plan S3 

School  at  Norrkoeping,  Sweden;  Plan 54 

School  at  Norrkoeping,  Sweden;  Elevation 54 

School  at  Gceteborg,  Sweden  ;  Plan 55 

Scliool  at  Gceteborg,  Sweden ;  Plan 55 

School  at  Gesle,  Sweden  ;  Plan 56 

Johannes  School,  Stockholm,  Sweden ;  Plan 56 

Johannes  School,  Stockholm,  Sweden ;  Elevation 57 

School  at  Trondhjem,  Norway  ;  Plan 57 

Vaalerengens  School,  Christiania,  Norway  ;  Plan 58 

School  at  Christiania,  Norway;  Plan 59 

School  at  Odense,  Copenhagen,  Denmark ;  Plan 59 

School  at  Odense,  Copenhagen,  Denmark  ;  Elevation 60 

School  at  Frederiksberg,  Denmark ;  Plan 60 

School  at  Frederiksberg,  Denmark  ;  Elevation 61 

School  in  the  St.  Hansgade,  Copenhagen  ;  Plan 61 

Girls'  School  in  the  Larslejstraede,  Copenhagen  ;  Plan 62 

Girls'  School  in  the  Larslejstraede,  Copenhagen ;  Elevation         ....  62 

School  in  the  Jagtvejen,  Copenhagen  ;  Plan 63 

School  in  the  Oehlenschlaegergade,  Copenhagen 63 

School  at  Wiborg,  Finland ;  Plan 64 

School  at  Wiborg,  Finland 65 

Board  School  on  Johnson  Street,  Stepney,  London ;  Plan 67 

School  at  Paisley,  England 67 

Section  of  a  Typical  "  Bank  "  in  an  Infants'  School 68 

School  at  Paisley,  England ;  Plan 69 

Board  School,  New  North  Street,  London ;  Plan 69 

A  Typical  English  School  on  a  Large  Lot 72 

Birchfield  Road  Board  School,  Liverpool:  Plan 73 

Birchfield  Road  Board  School,  Liverpool ;  Plan 73 

Birchfield  Road  Board  School,  Liverpool;  Plan 74 

Birchfield  Road  Board  School,  Liverpool ;  Plan 75 

Cobbold  Road  School,  Chelsea,  London  ;  Plan 75 

Cobbold  Road  School,  Chelsea,  London  ;  Elevation 76 

Williams  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 78 

Williams  School,  Boston,  Mass 79 

Eustis  Primary  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 80 

Eustis  Primary  School,  Boston,  Mass 81 

Andrews  Primary  School,  Boston,  Mass 82 

Sewall  Primary  School,  Brookline,  Mass. ;  Plans 8^ 

Grammar  School,  Hopedale,  Mass. ;  Plans 84 

Grammar  School,  Hopedale,  Mass. 85 

Roger  Ludlow  Grammar  School,  Windsor,  Conn. ;  Plans 86 

Roger  Ludlow  Grammar  School,  Windsor,  Conn. S6 

Winthrop  Grammar  School,  New  London,  Conn. ;  Plans     .        .        .        .        .  87 

Winthrop  Grammar  School,  New  London,  Conn. 88 

Pierce  School,  Brookline,  Mass. ;  Plans 89 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Xlll 


Peirce  School,  Newton,  Mass. ;  Plans     . 

Peirce  School,  Newton,  Mass.;  Main  Entrance 

Peirce  School,  Newton,  Mass. ;  View  of  a  Corridor 

Bigelow  School,  Newton,  Mass. ;  Plans  . 

Bigelow  School,  Newton,  Mass. 

Brooks  School,  Medford,  Mass.;  Plan     . 

Brooks  School,  Medford,  Mass. 

Eugene  Field  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Plans 

Sherman  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Plans  . 

Eliot  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Plans 

Eliot  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.     . 

Auburndale  School,  Toledo,  Ohio;  Plan 

Auburndale  School,  Toledo,  Ohio    . 

Lagrange  School,  Toledo,  Ohio ;  Plan     . 

Lagrange  School,  Toledo,  Ohio 

Waite  School,  Toledo,  Ohio     ... 

A  Cooking  Class  in  a  Toledo,  Ohio,  School 

George  Dewey  School,  Chicago,  111. ;  Plans 

New  Brown  School,  Hartford,  Conn. ;  Plans 

Robert  Gould  Shaw  School,  Boston,  Mass.;  Plans 

Robert  Gould  Shaw  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Christopher  Gibson  School,  Boston,  Mass.;  Plans 

Gilbert  Stuart  School,  Boston,  Mass.;  Plans 

Bowdoin  .School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 

Bowdoin  School.  Boston,  Mass. 

Mayhew  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plan     . 

Mayhew  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Paul  Revere  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 

Paul  Revere  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Public  School  No.  167,  New  York  City 

Public  School  No.  154,  New  York  City;  Plan 

Public  School  No.  154,  New  York  City  . 

Public  School  No.  165,  New  York  City  . 

Public  School  No.  165,  New  York  City;  Plan 

Public  School  No.  154,  New  York  City;  Play 

Public  School  No.  165,  New  York  City;  Plan 

Public  School  No.  153,  New  York  City  . 

Pubhc  School  No.  147,  New  York  City;  Roof  Play 

Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin ;  Aula    . 

Class  Room  for  Fifty-six  Pupils,  Primary  Grade ;  Plan 

Class  Room  for  Fifty-six  Pupils,  Grammar  Grade 

Typical  American  Class  Room 

Typical  German  Class  Room   .        .        .        .       • 

Class  Room  for  Forty-eight  Pupils,  Grammar  Grade ; 

Class  Room  for  Forty  Pupils,  Grammar  Grade;  Plan 

De  Lancey  School,  Philadelphia 

De  Lancey  School.  Philadelphia;  Plans 

De  Lancey  School,  Philadelphia;  Plans 

Longfellow  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 

Longfellow  School,  Boston,  Mass.    . 

Imperial  Gymnasium,  Vienna;  Aula 


room 


ground 


Plan 


Plan 


Page. 
90 

91 
92 

93 

94 
95 
95 
96 

97 
98 

99 
99 

100 

lOI 

102 

103 
104 

'05 

106 

ro7 

108 

[09 

II 

12 

13 

14 

14 

15 

16 

ti7 
[18 
18 
19 

19 
:o 

[20 


[25 
[26 
[27 
[28 


132 
^33 
134 
'35 
'38 

'39 
144 


xiv  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Page. 

Gymnasium,  Gottingen,  Prussia;  Plans 145 

Cantonal  School,  Berne,  Switzerland ;  Plans 146 

Gymnasium,  Salzwedel,  Prussia  ;  Plan 147 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Prussia ;  Plan       ....  148 

Realschule,  Karlsruhe,  Baden;  Plans 148 

Konig  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,  Stettin,  Prussia 149 

Konig  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,  Stettin,  Prussia  ;  Plans .150 

Gymnasium,  Bromberg,  Prussia;  Plan 151 

Oberrealschule,  Leitomischl,  Bohemia,  Austria ;  Plans 152 

Realschule,  Magdeburg,  Saxon  Prussia  ;  Plan 153 

Realschule,  Magdeburg,  Saxon  Prussia  ;  Plan 154 

Gymnasium,  Hildesheim,  Prussia;  Plan 155 

Realgymnasium,  Karlsruhe,  Baden ;  Plans 156 

Leibnitz  Realschule,  Hanover,  Prussia ;  Plan 157 

State  Gymnasium,  Stettin,  Prussia 158 

Realschule,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Saxony  ;  Plan 159 

Tochterschule,  Basel,  Switzerland 160 

Tochterschule,  Basel,  Switzerland ;  Plan 161 

Tochterschule,  Basel,  Switzerland  ;  Plans 162 

Annen  Realschule,  Dresden,  Saxony;  Plans 163 

Annen  Realschule,  Dresden,  Saxony 163 

Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  Bernburg,  Anhalt,  Germany ;  Plans        .        .  165 

Lyc6e  Victor  Hugo,  Paris ;  Fa(;ade  on  Courtyard 166 

Central  School,  Manchester,  England ;  Plans 167 

Central  School,  Manchester,  England ;  Plans 168 

Central  School,  Manchester,  England;  Plan 169 

Cassland  Road  Higher  Grade  School,.  London 170 

Cassland  Road  Higher  Grade  School,  London;  Plans 171 

A  Typical  One-story  English  School  with  Master's  House 1/2 

Proposed  Technical  and  Secondary  School,  Chippenham,  England;  Plan          .  173 
Proposed  Technical  and  Secondary  School,  Chippenham,  England     .        .        .174 

Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers' Center,  Offord  Road,  London  ;  Plan    ....  174 

Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers' Center,  Offord  Road,  London  ;  Plan    ....  175 

Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers'  Center,  Offord  Road,  London 176 

English  High  and  Latin  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 179 

English  High  and  Latin  School,  Boston,  Mass 180 

Akademische  Gymnasium,  Vienna;  Plans 181 

English  High  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 186 

English  High  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  Plans 188 

English  High  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  Principal  Entrance     ....  189 

Latin  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  Plans 191 

Latin  School,  Cambridge,  Mass .        .        .  192 

High  School,  Brookline,  Mass. ;  Plans .  193 

High  School,  Brookline,  Mass 195 

High  School,  Pawtucket,  R.  I. ;  Proposed  Plans 196 

High  School,  Springfield,  Mass. ;  Plans 197 

High  School,  Springfield,  Mass. ;  Plans 198 

High  School,  Springfield,  Mass 199 

High  School,  Newark,  N.  J. ;  Plans 200 

High  School,  Newark,  N.  J 201 

High  School,  New  Britain,  Conn. ;  Plans 203 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV 

Page. 

Groton  School;  Plans 204 

Groton  School ;  Plan 205 

Groton  School 206 

Brighton  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 207 

South  Boston  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Plans 208 

Girls'  High  School,  New  York  City ;  Plan 209 

Girls' High  School,  New  York  City  ;  Plan 210 

Girls' High  School,  New  York  City 211 

Central  High  School,  Toledo,  Ohio  ;  Plan 212 

Central  High  School,  Toledo,  Ohio 213 

Class  Room  for  Sixty-three  High  School  Pupils  ;  Plan 214 

St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School ;  Plans 217 

Cambridge  Manual  Training  School :  Plans 219 

Cambridge  Manual  Training  School ;  Plans 220 

Cambridge  Manual  Training  School 221 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 222 


Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston 


Plans 223 

Plans 224 

Machine  Shop,  North  Side       .        .        .  226 

Machine  Shop,  South  Side       .        .        .  226 

Drawing  Table 227 

Wood-working  Shop  ....  229 

Wood-turning  Shop 229 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston ;  Turning  and  Pattern-making,  Demon- 
stration Lesson 232 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston ;  Forge  Shop 233 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston  ;  Tool  Bench  in  Forge  Shop       .        .        .  235 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston;  Forge  Shop,  Demonstration  Lesson        .  237 

Drawing  Room  in  a  French  Industrial  School 241 

Industrial  School  at  Worms  ;  Plans 242 

Industrial  School  at  Innsbruck,  Austria  ;  Plans 243 

School  for  Apprentices  at  Rouen,  France ;  Plans 244 

Weaving  School  at  Miilheim,  Germany ;  Plans 245 

Watch  and  Clock  Making  School,  Paris 246 

Royal  Weaving  School  at  Crefeld,  Germany  :  Plan 248 

Royal  Weaving  School  at  Crefeld,  Germany  ;  Plan 249 

State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass. ;  Plans 252 

State  Nonnal  School,  North  Adams,  Mass. ;  Plans 254 

State  Normal  School,  Lowell,  Mass 255 

State  Normal  School,  Lowell,  Mass. ;  Plans 256 

State  Normal  School,  New  Haven,  Conn.  ;  Plans 257 

State  Normal  School,  New  Haven,  Conn 258 

Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  Berlin,  Germany ;  Plan 259 

Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  Berlin,  Germany :  Plans 260 

Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  Auxerre,  France  ;  Plan 261 

Cross  Section  of  Slate  Urinal 276 

Flushing  Tank  for  Urinals 277 

Section  of  Perforated  Supply  Pipe  and  Slate  Trough 278 

Gymnasium   and  Plunge  Bath,  Basement  of   Birchfield  Road   Board  School, 

Liverpool,  England ;  Plan 280 

Bathing  Rooms  in  a  Berlin  Elementary  School ;  Plan 281 


chool  Architecture. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    AND    FEATURES    OF    SCHOOLS. 

In  selecting  a  school  site  a  dry  location,  one  that  is  reason- 
ably level  and  on  unfrequented  streets,  well  removed  from 
stables,  from  factories  and  workshops,  should  be  sought.  The 
healthfulness  of  the  location  should  be  most  carefully  con- 
sidered. In  Germany  no  school  can  be  built  unless  its  site 
has  had  the  approval  of  the  district  physician  of  the  Sanitary 
Police,  a  department  with  similar  duties  to  those  of  boards  of 
health  in  the  United  States.  Like  precautions  are  taken  in 
the  Scandinavian  countries.  The  area  of  the  site  should  be 
at  least  sufficient  to  prevent  shadowing  from  adjoining 
buildings.  The  space  for  the  recreation  of  the  pupils  should 
be  generous,  and  should  have  pavement  of  brick  or  tar  con- 
crete, with  the  surface  pitched  to  traps  connected  with  the 
sewer.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  England  ampler 
areas  for  school  sites  are  assigned  than  is  generally  the  case  in 
the  United  States.  A  minimum  unbuilt-on  area  of  30  sq. 
ft.  per  pupil  is  required  for  school  premises  by  the  Board 
of  Education  of  England  and  Wales,  Often  regard  for 
other  conditions  interferes  with  the  choice  of  a  school  site 
which  affords  the  most  desirable  orientation  for  the  building. 
In  Prussia  a  northern  exposure  for  class  rooms  is  that  now 
most  favored,  if  the  conditions  permit,  and  other  authorities 
have  like  preference  for  this  aspect,  but  an  easterly  or  south- 
easterly exposure  is  generally  considered  that  most  desirable 
for  these  rooms.  By  the  former  the  room  is  sunned  earl 
the  morning,  and  the  pupils  are  not  disturbed  by  glare  of  1 
during  the  exercises.  The  northern  exposure  should  not  be 
adopted  unless  the  windows  are  fitted  with  double  sash  and 
the  rooms  are  thoroughly  warmed  and  scientifically  ventilated; 


able 

m 


2  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

when  so  equipped,  a  direct  southern  or  western  is  less  desirable 
for  class  rooms  than  is  a  northerly  exposure. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  place  a  school  upon  a  much  fre- 
quented or  narrow  street,  it  should  be  set  well  to  the  rear  of 
the  lot,  with  the  yard  on  the  street.  In  England  the  tendency 
is  to  place  the  school  yards  on  the  most  used  street,  with  the 
school  at  the  rear  of  the  lot. 

In  France  school  yards  are  often  ornamented  by  landscape 
gardening,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  the  space  for  recreation 
is  not  inconveniently  lessened   (Fig.   i).     Trees  or  climbing 


FIG.    I.       PRINCIPAL    COURTYARD    OF    THE    LYCliE    MOLlfeRE,    PARIS. 


vines  are  trained  to  grow  upon  th6  enclosing  brick  walls,  and 
even  in  winter  the  effect  of  this  growth  is  pleasing,  for  the 
branches  are  arranged  with  design  and  not  allowed  to  grow 
haphazard.  A  special  characteristic  of  Scandinavian  schools 
is  the  school  garden,  the  pupils  being  taught  therein  the  prin- 
ciples of  agriculture  and  horticulture.  In  England,  in  the 
Scandinavia  countries,  and  in  France  covered  playgrounds  are 
provided.  These  sometimes  occupy  a  part  of  the  first  floor  of 
the  buildings  (Fig.  2),  but  sometimes,  and  preferably,  they  are 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS. 


FIG. 


COVERED    PLAYGROUND,     LYCEE 
MOLlfcRE,     PARIS. 


separate  structures.  It 
is  usual  in  France,  and 
until  lately  it  has  been 
customary  in  England, 
to  wholly  enclose  the 
school  premises  with 
high  brick  walls.  In 
later  English  schools  a 
brick  wall,  4  ft.  high, 
with  an  unclimbable  iron 
fence  above  is  used  to 
enclose  the  premises. 
In  Germany  the  play- 
ground is  generally  cut 
off  from  view  (Fig.  3). 
Such  enclosure  of  the  yard  is  rarely  found  in  Switzerland  or 
in  the  United  States.  The  open  fences  used  in  these  countries 
permit  the  air  to  circulate  freely  and  offer  no  obstruction  to 
the  sunlight,  and  they  are  certainly  to  be  preferred  on  the 
south  and  west 
sides  of  the  prem- 
ises unless  there 
chance  to  be  un- 
sightly or  other- 
wise objectionable 
surroundings, 
when  brick  walls 
should  b  e  built. 
On  the  north  and 
east  such  walls, 
7  ft.  high,  are  de- 
sirable, as  they 
furnish  protection 
from  cold  winds. 
It  would  be  well 
if  these  walls  were 


FIG.  3. 


BLOCK    PLAN    OF    GEMEINDESCHULE 
NO.    204,  BERLIN. 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


fj 


i 


i 


1^ 


i 


m\ 


FIG. 


I      \m 


"  Building"  used  for  Gymnasium,  Baths,  Residence,  eta 
4,       BLOCK    PLAN   OF   SCHOOL    AT    AUGSBURG. 


given  the  landscape 
treatment  which  is 
found  in  France. 

In  Germany  the 
borders  of  school 
yards  are  often 
planted  with  shade 
trees  where  pos- 
sible (Fig.  4)  ;  such 
a  requirement  pre- 
supposes ample 
grounds  about  the 
building,  for  the 
minimum  allowable 
distance  for  a  tree 
from  a  school  is  20  ft. 
In  addition  to  the  main  entrance,  there  should  be  outside 
separate  entrances  to  the  basement  for  each  sex,  and  there 
should  not  be  less  than  two  exits  from  the  first  floor,  and  not 
less  than  two  staircases  from  the  top  to  the  first  floor  of  every 
school. 

A  porch,  or  better,  a  vestibule  of  ample  dimensions,  in 
which  early  comers  may  find  shelter,  without  being  given 
admission  to  the  building  proper,  is  a  most  desirable  feature. 
In  Switzerland  such  vestibules  are  required  in  all  schools.  In 
the  United  States  basement  entrances  are  generally  arranged 
so  that  the  pupils  may  have  access  to  the  play  rooms  and  toilet 
rooms  before  the  hour  at  which  the  exercises  beg-in.  All 
entrance  doors  should  open  outwards,  to  guard  against  disaster 
in  case  of  fire  or  panic.  Outer  vestibule  doors  should  be  hung 
with  double-action  swing  butts.  Ten  ft.  is  the  minimum  width 
for  a  school  corridor  and  12  ft.  is  preferable.  Corridors 
should  be  given  all  the  light  which  the  conditions  of  the  plan 
and  of  the  economical  construction  of  the  enclosing  walls 
permit.  The  basement  should  be  shut  off  by  tinned  doors, 
fitted  with  spring  butts  or  door  checks;  the  staircases  also 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS.  5 

may  well  be  shut  off  on  each  floor  by  like  protection  from 
fire. 

Staircases  are  best  constructed  either  of  masonry,  or  of 
metal  construction  throughout;  but  if  of  wood,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  fire-stopped  with  brick,  or  with  terra-cotta 
blocks,  and  the  under  side  should  be  wire  lathed  and  plastered. 
In  the  best  Eng^lish  schools  the  staircases  are  of  stone.  Treads 
of  iron  stairs  should  be  covered  with  rubber  mats,  or  better, 
with  combined  steel  and  lead  treads  not  less  than  5^  ins. 
wide.  The  rubber  mats  and  metal  treads  are  set  into  a 
rebate  cast  in  the  iron  tread.  In  primary  schools  the  height 
of  risers  should  be  6  ins.  with  12-in.  treads,  and  in  other 
schools  the  risers  should  not  be  more  than  7^  ins.,  with 
lo-in.  treads.  The  Board  of  Education  of  England  and 
Wales  requires  risers  not  exceeding  6  ins.  and  13-in.  treads 
for  all  school  staircases.  Posts  and  balusters  should  be  of  the 
plainest  and  most  readily  cleaned  form.     Hand-rails  of  lyi 


STAIRCASE    IN    LYCEE    RACINE,    PARIS, 


6  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

in.  iron  piping  have  proved  serviceable  and  of  sufficiently 
good  appearance.  Hand-rails  on  the  walls,  except  at  plat- 
forms, are  requisite.  Some  authorities  hold  that  school  stair- 
cases should  not  be  wider  than  3^^  ft.,  so  that  only  two  files  of 
pupils,  each  provided  with  a  hand-rail,  can  pass,  and  so  that 
the  possible  crowding  between  the  files,  in  case  of  panic, 
should  be  prevented.  The  excellent  discipline  of  American 
school  children,  which  has  been  proved  by  alarms  of  fire, 
justifies  the  retention  of  the  more  comfortable  width  of  5  ft., 
which  has  generally  been  adopted  in  the  schools  of  the  United 
States.  There  appears  to  be  no  practical  advantage  in  a 
greater  width  than  5  ft.,  but  in  many  German  schools  the  stair- 
cases are  10  ft.  wide.  Circular  staircases  are  unfit  for  general 
use  of  the  pupils.  Winders  should  never  be  used.  There 
should  not  be  more  than  fifteen,  and  not  less  than  three,  risers 
between  landings,  and  landings  should  not  be  less  than  4  ft. 
between  steps. 

As  far  as  co-education  of  the  sexes  affects  the  planning  of 
schools,  we  find  in  Switzerland  practically  the  same  conditions 
that  exist  in  the  United  States;  but  in  Germany,  and  generally 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  except  in  Holland,  co-education 
is  not  permitted  except  in  rural  schools,  and,  consequently,  the 
plans  show  an  absolute  and,  as  some  of  the  educators  of  these 
countries  maintain,  an  undesirable  division  of  the  sexes;  while 
in  the  United  States,  in  primary  and  grammar  grades,  such 
division  is  mainly  confined  to  the  basement,  an  imaginary  line 
being  the  only  barrier  in  the  playground. 

In  the  United  States  class-room  windows  are  made  4  ft. 
wide  between  jambs;  the  window  stools  are  usually  set  3  ft. 
above  the  floor,  although  they  are  ofi:en,  as  is  generally  the 
case  in  Germany,  set  i  ft.  higher  to  prevent  the  pupils  from 
looking  out.  For  this  purpose  the  lower  sash  of  some  of  the 
latest  German  schools  are  glazed  with  ribbed  glass. 

In  some  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  any  condition  that  prevents 
the  children  from  looking  out  of  the  windows  is  held  to  be 
objectionable;  and  the  window  stools  are  set  2^  ft.  high,  and 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS.  7 

the  most  recent  rules  for  the  Berlin  schools  permit  about  the 
same  minimum  height  of  sill. 

The  top  of  the  windows  should  come  as  near  the  ceiling  as 
their  finish  will  permit,  and  the  finish,  if  any,  should  not  exceed 
6  ins.  in  width.  In  France  it  is  required  that  the  head  of  the 
window  should  be  practically  flush  with  the  ceiling. 

Transoms  in  windows  are  objectionable  as  the  bars  cut  oft' 
valuable  light,  and,  with  them,  teachers  are  more  easily  tempted 
to  lower  the  temperature  by  opening  the  windows.  By  the 
dropping  of  the  transom  the  air  is  admitted  with  less  direct 
draft  than  by  lowering  a  hung  sash,  but  the  occasion  for 
any  such  admission  of  outer  air  should  seldom  exist  in  a 
school  equipped  with  proper  warming  and  ventilating  appa- 
ratus. The. primary  function  of  a  class-room  window  is  the 
admission  of  light,  and  such  windows  should  be  devised  to 
meet  this  end  inost  advantageously. 

Windows  evenly  distributed  in  the  wall  give  a  better  dif- 
fusion of  light  than  that  given  from  a  mullion  group  of  equal 
glass  area  placed  in  the  center  of  the  room,  for  with  the  latter 
arranjjement  the  corners  of  the  room  are  in  shadow.  There 
is,  of  course,  no  objection  to  the  use  of  mullioned  windows  if 
the  light  is  so  ample  that  none  of  the  desks  are  shadowed,  and 
providing  that  the  building  is  so  constructed  that  a  proper 
temperature  may  be  maintained  with  so  large  a  glass  area  as 
is  required  in  such  case.  As  has  been  done  in  later  New  York 
City  schools,  the  mullioned  window  can  be  used  with  no  in- 
crease of  cost  of  construction  in  skeleton  steel  frame  buildings. 

In  English  schools,  and  in  those  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
casement  sash,  instead  of  the  hung  sash  commonl}'  used  in  the 
United  States,  is  usually  found.  Casement  sash,  while  in  a 
measure  shielding,  when  opened,  the  pupils  from  direct  draft, 
are  especially  awkward  to  manage  when  double,  and  entail 
much  more  woodwork  than  do  hung  sash,  and,  hence,  are 
more  obstructive  of  light. 

Where  arched  windows  are  used,  their  height  and,  conse- 
quently, that  of  the  rooms  should  be  increased  so  that  the  glass 


8  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

area  may  equal   that  of  windows  with  square   heads  of  the 
size  proper  for  a  class  room  of  normal  height. 

Thirty-three  per  cent,  of  the  heat  which  is  lost  through 
single  glazed  sash  may  be  saved  by  double  glazing.  In  double 
glazing  the  two  panes  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  puttied 
in,  the  panes  being  set  i  in.  apart.  Double  runs  of  sash  still 
further  prevent  the  waste  of  heat  through  the  windows  and 
are  more  effective  in  checking  the  drafts  and  in  shutting  out 
dust  and  noise.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  any  additional 
thickness  of  brick  walls  which  the  use  of  double  runs  of 
sash  may  necessitate,  the  cost  of  a  school  is  increased  about 
I  ^^  per  cent,  where  this  feature  is  used  in  class  rooms.  An 
increase  of  4  ins.  in  the  thickness  of  the  brick  walls  through- 
out a  school  increases  its  cost  by  about  4  per  cent. 

The  width  and  height  of  class  rooms  as  affecting  their 
lighting  will  be  specially  considered  in  Chapter  VI. 

Under  normal  conditions  of  site,  basement  windows  should 
have  a  minimum  height  between  sill  and  lintel  of  4  ft.;  and 
advantage  should  always  be  taken  of  a  sloping  grade  to  in- 
crease the  height  of  such  windows.  The  basement  of  a  school 
should  never  be  less  than  10  ft.  A  less  height  prevents  suffi- 
cient lighting  of  the  rooms  and  the  proper  installation  of  the 
heating  plant. 

The  inner  vestibule  doors  should  be  hung  with  spring  butts. 
Doors  should  open  towards  the  corridors  and  should  have  a 
glass  panel,  set  with  bottom  4  ft.  above  the  floor,  and  transom 
lights  over. 

Rift  Georgia  or  Florida  pine  or  maple  are  held  in  the 
United  States  to  be  the  best  upper  flooring  for  school  purposes. 
These  floors  are  usually,  in  that  country,  left  without  painters' 
linish,  although  it  would  be  better  if  they  were  thoroughly 
oiled  and  carefully  maintained  in  use  as  are  those  of  the  Ger- 
man and  Scandinavian  schools.  American  school  boards  are 
usually  very  economical  in  expenditure  for  scrubbing  floors, 
and  are  content  with  sweeping  only,  —  a  method  of  saving 
public  funds  not  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  community. 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS.  9 

Except  for  boiler  and  coal  rooms,  where  brick  pavement  laid 
on  edge  should  be  used,  and  for  rooms  used  for  gymnasiums 
or  for  school  purposes,  where  wooden  floors  should  be  used, 
there  is  no  better  upper  flooring  for  basements  of  schools  than 
the  best  brands  of  asphalt,  ^  in.  thick,  laid  on  a  concrete  bed. 
Wooden  floors  in  the  basement  should  be  without  air  space, 
laid  on  screeds  bedded  in  concrete.  A  coat  of  hot  asphalt, 
or,  at  least,  of  tar  concrete,  may  well  be  laid  on  the  concrete 
before  laying  the  screeds,  and  cinder  concrete  should  be  used 
to  fill  in  to  the  top  of  the  screeds.  Waterproof  paper  should 
be  laid  between  the  upper  and  the  lower  floors. 

Sheathed  dadoes  are  often  found  giving  lodgment  for  ver- 
min; those  of  "gauged  mortar"  (a  mixture  of  lime  and  hair 
mortar  with  plaster  of  Paris),  with  wooden  chair  rail  and  plain 
ogee  hospital  baseboards,  run  out  of  3-in.  plank,  have  been 
found  cleanly  and  serviceable.  In  England  dadoes  of  enam- 
eled brick  with  a  beveled  wood  base,  as  well  as  of  hard  red 
brick  and  cement,  are  used.  Concaved  angles  of  plastered 
walls  and  of  ceilings  and  walls  facilitate  the  cleaning  of  the 
building.  Inaccessible  dust  ledges  should  be  avoided.  The 
plastering  of  the  walls  should  be  smooth  to  prevent  dust  lodg- 
ment. There  should  be  as  little  wood  finish  as  possible,  and 
to  that  end  Keene's  cement  for  door  and  window  trims  is 
advisable.  In  short,  it  is  wellnigh  as  important  to  take  pre- 
cautions against  dust  lodgment  and  the  use  of  absorbent  sur- 
faces in  a  school  as  it  is  in  a  hospital. 

Black  slate  is  the  best  material  for  blackboards.  In  the 
United  States  the  blackboards  are  45^  ft.  high,  and  are  usually 
set  upon  all  available  wall  surface  of  class  and  recitation 
rooms.  The  blackboard  surface  between  the  windows  is,  of 
course,  useless  for  any  of  the  regular  school  work,  but  serves 
to  carry  the  color  line  around  the  room,  to  give  space  for 
exhibition  drawings,  and  in  such  position  does  not  essentially 
aflect  the  diffusion  of  light.  In  the  United  States  blackboards 
are  set  2  ft.,  4  ins.  in  primary  schools,  and  in  other  schools,  3  ft. 
above  the  floor,  and  have  a  chalk-receiver  2^  ins.  wide. 


lO  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  wall  painting  required  by  the  Berlin  authorities  —  light 
shades  of  blue-gray  or  green-gray  —  are  better  for  the  eyes 
than  the  more  cheerful  soft  shades  of  green,  which  are  usually 
adopted  in  those  American  schools  where  the  subject  has  been 
given  any  consideration.  Plastered  walls  should  be  painted 
in  oil  at  least  to  the  top  of  the  blackboard;  above  this  height 
the  walls  are  usually,  in  the  United  States,  tinted  in  water 
color.  It  is  advisable  that  oil  color  should  be  used  throughout 
on  the  walls  to  permit  thorough  cleaning.  Corridors  with 
plastered  dadoes  should  be  painted  5>^  ft.  high  in  oil  of  a  color 
darker  than  the  walls.  Ceilings  should  have  a  very  light  buff 
or  white  water-color  tint. 

All  rooms  should  have  picture  moldings,  or,  better,  to 
avoid  dust  lodgment,  a  metal  rod  to  serve  the  same  purpose. 

In  the  United  States  a  movable  teacher's  platform,  5  or  6 
by  10  ft.  is  generally  provided,  although  some  teachers  prefer 
to  dispense  with  an  elevated  seat.  For  the  use  of  the  teacher 
a  wardrobe,  16  ins.  in  depth,  and  a  bookcase,  10  to  12  ins.  in 
depth,  are  built,  flush  with  the  wall  if  possible,  and  set  con- 
veniently adjacent  to  the  teacher's  platform. 

Outdoor  clothing  should  be  hung  in  separate  enclosures. 
In  the  United  States  such  enclosures  are  called  "  wardrobes," 
and  in  the  best  schools  one  is  provided  for  each  class  room, 
with  a  door  to  the  corridor  as  well  as  to  the  class  room  to 
permit  the  orderly  filing  of  the  pupils.  They  have  outside 
light  and  are  warmed  and  ventilated.  The  width  of  these 
enclosures  is  not  less  than  4  ft.  Separate  wardrobes  thus 
arranged  increase  the  cost  of  a  school  from  4  to  4^  per  cent, 
above  that  of  a  building  of  the  same  number  of  rooms  in 
which  the  clothing  is  hung  in  widened  corridors. 

The  hat  and  coat  hooks  are  set  only  on  the  side  walls  of  the 
wardrobes;  the  top  row  of  hooks  is  placed  in  primary  schools 
4  ft.,  in  grammar  schools  5  ft.,  above  the  floor.  The  minimum 
hanging  space  is.  30  running  ft.  for  a  class  of  56  pupils.  Above 
the  row  of  hooks,  or  immediately  above  the  baseboard,  is  set 
a  shelf  for  overshoes,  etc.,  and  umbrella  stands  are  provided. 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS.  II 

In  large  European  and  English  schools  living  apartments 
are  furnished  for  the  janitor,  either  in  the  school  building,  or 
in  a  separate  building  on  the  school  premises,  and  in  many 
cases  like  provision  is  made  for  the  master  in  the  city  schools 
and  almost  always  in  the  rural  schools.  There  is  no  apparent 
advantage  in  the  assignment  of  space  in  a  school  building  for 
the  masters  housekeeping,  for  he  should  be  able  to  rent  his 
quarters  elsewhere  for  much  less  than  the  interest  on  the  cost 
of  the  portion  of  the  school  which  would  be  required  for  his  use. 

There  is  more  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  provision  of 
janitor's  quarters  in  the  school,  although,  under  the  conditions 
of  such  service  now  usually  obtaining  in  the  United  States, 
it  would  be  generally  unwise  to  make  such  use  of  school 
buildings;  at  a  later  time  when  janitor  service  is  better  organ- 
ized and  regulated,  such  an  arrangement  may  well  be  adopted. 
One  incidental  advantage  of  such  an  arrangement  would  be 
the  improvement  which  could  then  be  readily  made  in  the 
character  of  the  lunches  served  in  the  schools. 

A  master's  office  is  a  requisite  for  large  schools.  Private 
rooms,  with  adjoining  toilet  rooms  both  for  men  and  women 
teachers,  should  be  provided  in  all  schools. 

It  is  held  by  some  authorities  that  no  toilet  rooms  should  be 
placed  in  the  basement  of  schools,  but  that  all  such  plumbing, 
except  that  for  the  use  of  the  teachers,  should  be  in  a  separate, 
well-warmed,  and  ventilated  building.  If  there  is  strong  and 
certain  ventilation,  either  from  the  toilet  room,  or  through  the 
plumbing  fixtures  themselves  to  an  ample  aspirating  shaft, 
heated  winter  and  summer,  there  appears  no  need  of  thus  in- 
creasing the  cost  of  school  construction.  Where  the  basement 
area  is  required  for  manual  training  rooms,  etc.,  such  an  arrange- 
ment would  be  justifiable  on  the  scorie  of  expense,  but  the  con- 
venience of  the  school  would  not  be  increased.  Basement  toilet 
rooms  should  immediately  adjoin  the  play  rooms  for  each  sex, 
and  should  be  readily  accessible  from  the  school  yard.  They 
should  be  shut  oft' from  the  play  rooms  by  fl}^  doors  hung  with 
spring  butts. 


12  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Where  space  permits  the  basement  may  well  be  further 
utilized  for  gymnasiums,  for  bathing  rooms,  and  for  rooms  for 
manual  training  and  cooking  schools.  On  the  continent  of 
Europe  the  gymnasiums  are  usually  in  separate  buildings.  In 
a  very  large  school,  if  the  size  of  the  lot  permits,  the  boiler 
and  coal  room  may  well  be  assigned  to  a  separate  building 
adjoining  the  schoolhouse;  but  in  schools  of  moderate  size 
such  an  arrangement  has  not  sufficient  advantage  to  warrant 
the  increased  cost  of  construction. 

The  narrowest  appropriation  does  not  justify  the  construc- 
tion of  a  school  where  light  joists  are  used  for  the  first  floor, 
unless  the  basement  ceiling  is  wire  lathed.  A  better  construc- 
tion is  a  first  floor  of  heavy  timbers  and  planking,  the  so-called 
"  mill "  construction.  This  construction  has  the  disadvantage 
that  there  may  be  considerable  annoyance  from  shrinkage,  as 
the  market  seldom  affords  seasoned  stock  of  large  dimensions. 
It  therefore  does  not  appear  extravagant  to  advise  that  the 
first  floor  should  be  of  steel  beams  and  arch  construction,  or 
of  some  of  the  many  forms  of  concrete  arch  now  so  com- 
monly used. 

The  inner  lining  of  outer  brick  walls  should  be  of  hard- 
burned  hollow  brick,  with  soft  brick  set  to  receive  nailings  for 
the  interior  finish.  The  interior  partitions,  where  not  of  brick, 
are  best  of  terra-cotta  lumber,  or  thin  partitions  of  metal  lath- 
ing set  on  angle  irons  and  plastered.  The  advantage  of  such 
solidity  of  construction  is  not  only  the  protection  from  fire, 
but  from  the  lodgment  of  vermin. 

Where  such  solid  partitions  are  found  to  be  too  expensive 
and  stud  partitions  are  used,  they  should  be  thoroughly  fire- 
stopped  up  to  the  top  of  the  base-boards. 

Wire-lathed  ceilings  are  advisable  not  merely  as  a  fire 
protection,  but  their  greater  permanency  renders  such  con- 
struction essentially  more  economical  than  wood  lathing. 

The  principal  danger  from  fire  in  a  school  is  from  the  base- 
ment; with  the  first  floor  constructed  of  incombustible  or  slow- 
burnipg  materials,  with  all  interior  partitions  of  solid  construe- 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS.      .  I3 

tion,  with  the  plastering  laid  directly  upon  the  brick  walls,  and 
with  wire-lathed  ceilings,  if  the  basement  is  shut  off  from  the 
first  floor  b}^  self-closing,  metal-covered  doors,  and  if  all  fires 
are  confined  to  the  basement,  even  if  the  floors  above  the  first 
story  and  the  roof  are  constructed  of  the  ordinary  narrow 
joists  with  ^-in.  floor  boarding,  there  is  little  risk  to  the  lives 
of  the  inmates  if  the  fire-drill  is  not  neglected. 

If  the  roof  is  flat  and  it  is  protected  by  a  battlement  wall 
of  not  less  than  i8  ins.  in  height,  a  fire  outside  of  a  school, 
not  immediatel}'  adjacent  to  other  buildings,  cannot  be,  in 
itself,  a  danger  to  the  lives  of  the  occupants,  for  the  pupils 
could,  under  the  excellent  discipline  which  prevails  in  the 
schools  of  the  United  States,  reach  the  street  before  the  build- 
ing could  be  in  a  dangerous  condition. 

To  minimize  the  danger  from  panic  by  giving  greater  sense 
of  securit}^  to  the  inmates,  it  is  advisable  that  the  floors  of 
primary  schools,  which  are  in  excess  of  two  stories  in  height, 
should  be  built  wholly  of  incombustible  materials,  and  that 
other  schools,  which  are  in  excess  of  three  stories  in  height, 
should  have  their  roofs,  as  well  as  their  floors,  of  the  same 
construction. 

Although  generous  appropriations  for  school  buildings  are 
made  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  there  is  generally 
complaint  of  insufficient  accommodation  for  the  school  chil- 
dren. If  building  laws  are  not  made  needlessly  severe,  and 
if  large  buildings  of  three  or  more  stories  in  height  are  more 
generally  constructed,  this  condition  need  not  exist.  The  dis- 
advantage of  long  flights  of  stairs  for  children  to  climb  is 
largely  one  of  imagination.  This  inconvenience  in  buildings 
of  more  than  four  stories  in  height  can,  in  great  measure,  be 
obviated  by  the  introduction  of  elevators,  and  by  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  roofs  for  the  pla3'ground,  as  is  done  in  the  New 
York  City  schools.  The  roof  playgrounds  may  well  be  for  the 
exclusive  use  of  the  pupils  assigned  to  the  class  rooms  of  the 
upper  stories. 

The  rapid  increase  of  population  is  often  found  to  render 


lA  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

small  schools  inadequate  for  the  accommodation  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  neighborhood  they  were  originally  designed  to 
serve  after  they  have  been  occupied  for  a  comparatively  brief 
period.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  with  these  small 
schools  not  only  is  the  cost  per  class  room  fully  20  per  cent, 
greater  than  in  the  large  three-story  schools  with  accommoda- 
tion equivalent  to  sixteen  class  rooms,  but  the  cost  of  grading, 
paving,  and  fencing,  and  the  cost  of  janitor  service  and  fuel, 
are  relatively  greater  per  pupil. 

Too  often  saving  in  cost  is  made  at  the  expense  of  (Economi- 
cal and  safe  construction.  In  one  large  Ohio  city,  where  the 
authorities  pride  themselves  upon  the  low  cost  of  the  schools, 
there  is  a  building  four  stories  in  height,  with  stud  interior 
partitions,  furred  walls,  and  no  fire-stops.  No  metal  or  brick 
ducts  are  provided  for  ventilation;  the  foul  air  is  supposed  to 
find  its  way  through  the  hollow  spaces  in  floors  and  walls  to 
the  space  between  the  roof  and  the  ceilings  of  the  upper  rooms, 
and  from  thence  through  ventilators  to  the  outer  air.  A  more 
imperfect  system  of  ventilation  and  a  more  ingenious  fire-trap 
could  not  well  be  devised.  The  rough  surface  of  sawed 
lumber  and  the  backs  of  plastered  surfaces  gave  read}'  lodg- 
ment for  dust,  and  the  uncertainty  of  the  direction  of  the  air, 
under  such  conditions,  gave  no  warrant  that  this  dust  was  not 
breathed  in  by  the  occupants  of  the  building. 

Members  of  school  committees,  and  others  interested  in 
school  construction,  should  recognize  that  in  such  work  great 
saving  in  cost  can  seldom  be  made  except  by  sacrifice  of 
desirable  features,  and  that  the  permanent  value  of  a  building 
depends  upon  the  knowledge,  skill,  and  forethought  used  by 
the  architect  in  the  disposition  of  its  parts,  in  the  durability 
and  fire-protected  character  of  its  construction,  in  the  quality 
of  its  appointments  and  fittings;  and,  finally,  that  beauty  of 
the  design,  though  no  small  consideration,  may  fittingly  be 
restrained  within  the  limitations  of  brick  construction.  Such 
construction  may  be  more  or  less  elaborate,  as  the  neighbor- 
hood, the  site,  and  the  size  of  the  building  may  require. 


5  z 
a. 

<  S 

re  C 

i"  5 

tJq'  X 


r. 


1 6  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  percentage  of  excess  of  cost  between  a  school  designed 
with  regard  for  architectural  etfect  and  one  of  a  purely  utilita- 
rian construction  is  not  great.  Under  ordinary  conditions, 
satisfactory  architectural  results  may  be  obtained  at  an  increase 
of  cost  of  not  more  than  5  per  cent,  above  that  of  the  most 
"practical"  construction.  A  careful  reckoning  of  the  cost  of 
the  Brighton  High  School,  the  most  elaborate  school  designed 
by  the  writer,  shows  that  but  8  per  cent,  of  its  cost,  above  that 
of  a  purely  utilitarian  structure,  covered  the  expense  of  its 
architectural  features.  It  will  be  generally  admitted  that  a 
large  building  demands  a  greater  relative  cost  for  architectural 
effect  than  does  a  smaller  one.  Few  people  now  maintain  that 
a  pleasing  architectural  effect  is  an  unimportant  consideration, 
and  that  a  beautiful  school  is  not  a  factor  in  the  education  of 
the  young. 

Common  sense  dictates  that  if  the  roof  of  a  school  is  not 
to  be  utilized  for  some  purpose,  that  it  should  be  either  fiat  or 
with  a  low  pitch.  A  high,  well-lighted  basement  is  requisite, 
whether  or  not  the  space  is  to  be  used  for  occupancy  by  the 
pupils.  The  important  rooms  in  the  basement  need  windows 
of  ample  size,  and  a  basement  ceiling  height  of  10  ft.  is  none 
too  high,  if  only  for  the  proper  installation  of  the  heating 
apparatus. 

Aside  from  economy  in  planning,  which  certainly  leads  to 
a  balanced  arrangement  of  rooms  and  which,  except  in  rare 
cases,  precludes  a  picturesque  and  irregular  disposition  of 
these  rooms,  the  key  to  the  external  expression  of  a  school  is 
the  size  and  distribution  and  form  of  windows,  which  experi- 
ence has  shown  to  be  best  adapted  for  the  needs  of  the  class 
rooms.  The  windows  should  be  wide  and  high,  preferably 
square-headed  and  without  transom  bars.  This  desirable 
window  treatment,  in  itself,  renders  picturesque  design  for 
such  buildings  difficult  of  attainment. 

Forms  suggested  by  the  brick  architecture  of  the  Renais- 
sance, least  affected  by  romantic  traditions,  may  be  readily 
employed  without  sacrifice  of  the  practical  requirements  of  the 


GENERAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    SCHOOLS.  I7 

buildings.  Ample  scope  is  given  to  the  designer  in  the  treat- 
ment of  roof,  and  in  the  mass  and  the  proportion  he  may 
model  from  the  structure  without  impairing  its  utility,  in  the 
variation  of  texture  and  color  of  brickwork,  in  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent-colored mortars,  in  the  variety  of  detail,  in  the  division, 
and  in  the  accentuation  of  surface.  With  careful  study,  oppor- 
tunities for  individual  expression  are  thus  offered  without  the 
sacrifice  of  any  practical  requirements.  The  object  should  be 
to  develop  and  express  a  type,  not  to  simulate  the  external 
forms  which  fitted  past  conditions  and  are  not  nicely  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  our  own  time.  While  in  the  architectural  ex- 
pression of  the  plan,  the  American  architects  do  not  make  so 
unfavorable  a  showing  in  comparison  with  those  of  Europe,  the 
architects  of  the  Teutonic  countries  of  Europe,  with  those  of 
France,  aided  by  the  enlightened  direction  of  the  authorities, 
have  developed  school  planning  to  a  higher  degree  than  has 
been  the  case  in  America,  as  will  be  recognized  by  the  reader 
of  the  following  chapters.  The  plans  of  the  schools  of  the 
Teutonic  countries  will  be  found  especially  suggestive  to 
American  architects. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS    OF    GERMANY,    AUSTRIA, 
SWITZERLAND,    AND    FRANCE. 

In  1763,  Frederick  the  Great  established  in  Prussia  a  system 
of  compulsory  elementary  education.  At  later  periods  this 
example  was  followed  by  the  neighboring  countries,  so  that 
throughout  the  German  Empire,  in  Austria,  and  in  Switzer- 
land the  system  of  education  and,  hence,  the  plans  of  the 
schools  are  essentially  the  same.  In  every  kind  of  school  the 
separate  graded  class  system  obtains. 

Variations  in  plan  occur,  but  they  are  not  especially  dis- 
tinctive of  the  different  countries  and  sections.  The  plans  of 
schools  in  Teutonic  countries  differ  no  more  than  they  do  in 
the  several  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  schools  of  the 
countries  most  influenced  by  the  German  educational  system 
may,  therefore,  be  considered  together. 

The  elementary  schools  of  the  German  Empire  and  those 
of  Austria  are  of  two  classes,  —  those  which  are  not,  and  those 
which  are,  preparatory  to  the  secondary  schools. 

The  non-preparatory  elementary  school  is  commonly  known 
as  the  "  Volksschule,"  but  it  is  called  in  Prussia,  "Gemeinde- 
schule,"  and  in  Saxon}^,  "  Bezirksschule."  These  schools  are 
free  in  Prussia,  and  elsewhere  a  very  small  tuition  fee  is 
charged.  In  the  Biirgerschule,  pupils  may  be  prepared  for  the 
secondary  schools,  and  those  who  do  not  enter  secondary 
schools  may  receive  a  more  advanced  education  than  in  the 
Volksschule.  A  higher  tuition  fee  is  charged  in  the  Biirger- 
schule than  in  the  Volksschule.  In  the  country  and  in  the 
smaller  towns  there  is  but  one  class,  known  either  as  the 
"  Volksschule "  or  simply  as  the  "  Schule."  In  many  such 
schools  there  is  a  department  called  the  "  Vorschule,"  where 
pupils  are  prepared  for  the  secondary  schools. 

The  Biirgerschule  is  generally  for  both  sexes;  but  there  is  a 

18 


20  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

class  of  gfirls'  schools  where  the  curriculum  is  more  advanced 
than  in  the  Biirgerschule,  which  is  called  the  "  Madchen- 
Mittelschule."  The  two  classes  of  German  and  Austrian 
elementary  schools  have  no  essential  difference  in  plan  re- 
quirements. The  Swiss  elementary  schools,  while  not  given 
the  classification  of  Volksschule  and  Biirgerschule,  follow  the 
general  Teutonic  plan  model. 

The  class  rooms  in  the  Teutonic  elementary  schools  are 
20  to  22  ft.  in  width,  30  to  32  ft.  in  length,  and  not  less  than 
13  ft.  in  height.  The  lighting  is  generally  only  from  the  left 
side  of  the  pupil,  but,  in  corner  rooms,  the  light  is  sometimes 
admitted  from  the  wall  opposite  the  teacher's  desk;  although 
the  lighting  from  more  than  one  side  of  a  class  room  is  not  now 
permitted  in  Germany  and  in  Berlin,  at  least,  the  northern 
light  is  that  demanded  for  class  rooms,  except  under  special 
conditions  of  site.  In  the  larger  schools  the  aula,  or  examina- 
tion hall,  and  gymnasiums  are  almost  constantly  provided. 
The  aula,  in  Swiss  schools,  is  used  not  only  for  examinations 
and  exhibitions,  as  is  its  exclusive  use  in  Germany  and  Austria, 
but  for  collective  exercises  and  social  festivities. 

Almost  all  the  schools  have  janitor's  quarters,  and  in  a 
majority  there  are  also  apartments  for  one  or  more  teachers. 

In  Germany  and  Austria  the  outer  clothing  of  the  pupils, 
when  not  hung  in  the  class  rooms,  is  usually  placed  in  the 
corridors,  or  in  alcoves  off  the  corridors;  more  rarely,  separate 
enclosures  with  outer  light  are  provided  for  the  clothing.  In 
some  cases,  but  not  in  many,  these  enclosures  give  both  from 
the  corridor  and  class  room,  but  they  are  usually  accessible 
from  the  class  room  only. 

In  Switzerland,  as  in  the  United  States,  both  sexes  are  often 
taught  in  the  same  classes.  In  Germany  and  Austria,  except 
in  some  of  the  village  schools,  there  is  no  co-education,  but 
the  schools  are  generally  arranged  for  separate  classes  of  both 
sexes. 

The  Swiss  elementary  schools  have  always  two  divisions; 
the  one  for  the  youngest  children  has  usually  the  largest  class 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


21 


rooms.     There  is  sometimes  a  third  division  in  which  more 
advanced  instruction  is  given,  and  where  the  class  rooms  are 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


FIG.    5.       PLANS    OF    A    ONE-CLASS    GERMAN    VILLAGE    SCHOOL 
WITH    master's    APARTMENTS. 

smaller  than  in  the  second  division.  The  three  divisions  are 
usually  arranged  upon  separate  stories. 

Nearly  all  the  village  schools  of  Germany  have  quarters  for 
the  teacher  under  the  same  roof  with  the  school.  Fig.  5  shows 
the  first  and  second  tioor  plans  of  a  single  class  German  village 
school  provided  with  such  apartments. 

The  village  schools  of  the  Oberland,  Switzerland,  show  the 
peculiar  architectural  characteristics  of  that  district.  A  school 
of  this  type  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  6  and  9.     In  the  rural  dis- 


FIG.    6.       VILLAGE   SCHOOL    IN    THE    OBERLAND,    SWITZERLAND. 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


U.V 

oh 


1    ^ 

6     n 

'-^ 

*?     ii 

u 

1 

^ 

71 

c^ 

,><      yi 

.r, 

~^       n 

L_ 

1 

tf-; 


!S§;s? 


li-S, 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


23 


2'^ 


H 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  9.  PLAN  OF  VILLAGE 
SCHOOL  IN  THE  OBERLAND, 
SWITZERLAND. 


and  ten  for  girls, 
one  of  which  is 
about  21  by  34  ft.; 
the  rest  of  the  class 
rooms  are  about  21 
by  26  ft.  There  is 
a  Physics  class 
room  for  each  sex; 
opposite  these 
Physics  rooms  is  an 
apparatus  room  and 
a  room  for  private 
study.  The  aula, 
which  is  about  32 
by  69  ft.,  is  on  the 
third  floor.  On  the 
first  floor  there  is, 
besides  the  class 
rooms,  a  conference 
room  for  men  and 
one  for  women 
teachers.  On  this 
floor  there  is  a  room 
for  the  master,  and 
two  resting  or  ham- 


tricts  of  Switzerland  the  teacher 
has  quarters  in  the  school  build- 
ing, as  in  this  example. 

Fig.  II  gives  the  plans  of  a 
Gemeindeschule  now  under  con- 
struction in  Berlin  on  the  Wilms 
Strasse.  This  building  is  three 
stories  in  height.  It  has  twenty- 
two   classrooms,  twelve   for   boys 


FIG.     10. 


FIRST  FLOOR. 
SPALENSCHULE,     BASEL,     SWITZERLAND. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


GEMEINDESCHULE    IN    THE    WILMS 
STRASSE,    BERLIN. 

mock  rooms  for  young  children.  On 
each  floor  there  are  two  teachers' 
rooms,  one  for  each  sex.  There  are 
shower-bath  rooms  in  the  basement.  This  building  is  one  of 
a  type  which  is  often  adopted  in  Berlin,  —  that  in  which 
the    class    rooms    are   ranged   upon    one    side    of  a    corridor. 


26 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     12.        SCHOOL    IN    THE    MARIAHILSPLATZ,     MUNICH. 

Another  recently  constructed  Berlin  school  of  this  type  is 
Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  on  Christerburger  Strasse.  The 
plans  of  this  building  are  shown  by  Figs.  7,  8,  and  by  Fig. 
171  in  Chapter  XI. 

In  the  photograph  of  this  building  the  structure  on  the  right- 
hand  side  is  the  gymnasium,  indicated  upon  the  block  plan 
shown  in  Chapter  I.,  Fig.  3. 

The  Untere  Realschule,  Basel,  illustrated  here  by  a  print 
on  page  27,  has  a  plan  of  the  same  type  as  these  Berlin 
schools,  but  presenting  no  especially  noteworthy  features. 

An  example  of  the  same  plan  t3'pe,  in   a  smaller  building, 


SPALENSCHULE,     BASEL,     SWLrZEKLANU. 


UNTHRK     REALSCHULE,     BASEL,     SWITZERLAND. 


27 


28 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


is  the  Spalenschule,  Basel  (Fig.  lo).  This  is  a  primary 
school  for  boys,  and  presents  an  interesting  corner-lot  treat- 
ment.   There  are  toilet  rooms  on  each  story,  but  no  wardrobes. 


cSlRLS 


FIG.     13. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

BEZIRKSSCHULE,    SCHARNHORST-STRASSE,    LEIPSIC. 


In  the  Munich  school,  Fig.  12,  we  have  a  type  of  a  long, 
narrow,  compact  plan,  with  class  rooms  on  either  side  of  a 
middle  corridor  and  staircases  at  either  end.  In  this  example 
a  gymnasium,  with  floor  on  the  basement  level,  is  placed  at  one 
end  in  the  section   immediately  adjoining  the  staircase,  thus 


r  rrrr  rrrr  rrr 

r  rrrr  rnr  rrr 

Tr  rrrr  n  . 


r  cc  c     «. 


rrrr  fTrn  r 
rrfr'frFr  f 

.irr  ..rnrr 


FIG.     14.        BEZIRKSSCHULE,    SCHARXHORST-STRASSE,    LEIPSIC. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


29 


effectively  separating  the  sexes,  and  giving  the  gymnasium  a 
conveniently  accessible  location  from  each  section  of  the 
building.  The  school  has  in  its  four  stories  twenty-nine  class 
rooms,  and  a  kindergarten  in  the  basement.  Toilet  rooms  are 
provided  in  the  main  body  and  upon  every  floor  of  the  building. 


FOURTH    FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN'. 
FIG.     15.        PLANS    OF    A    GEMEINDESCHULE,     BERLIN. 

An  example  of  a  large  school  with  the  rooms  arranged  upon 
either  side  of  a  lons^itudinal  corridor  is  the  Bezirksschule  on 
Scharnhorst-Strasse,  Leipsic   (Figs.  13,  14). 

A  simple  example  of  a  Gemeindeschule  is  that  in  Berlin, 
shown  by  Fig.  15.  Here  class  rooms  are  placed  on  both 
sides  of  a  longitudinal  corridor.  This  building  is  four  stories 
in  height  and  has  an  aula.  • 


30 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


BOYS  •  PLAY-  GROUND 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     1 6.       SCHOOL    ON    WITTELSBACHER    STRASSE,    MUNICH. 

The  school  on  Wittelsbacher  Strasse,  Munich  (Fig.  i6), 
has  the  gymnasium  in  an  |_,  the  staircase  to  which  gives  from 
the  center  of  a  longitudinal  corridor.  This  school  has  twenty- 
eight  class  rooms. 

A  more  compact  arrangement  of  the  gymnasium  is  shown 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.   17.     ST.  John's  school,  basel,  Switzerland. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


31 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     18.        SCHOOL    ON    THE    SEILERSTRASSE,    ST.     PAUL,     NEAR    HAMBURG. 

in  St.  John's  School,  Basel,  Switzerland  (Fig.  17).  This  is  a 
mixed  school,  with  twenty-four  class  rooms,  and  with  four 
manual  training  rooms  in  the  basement.  The  school  at  St. 
Paul,  near  Hamburg  (Fig.  18),  closely  resembles  in  plan 
this  Basel  school.  The  rooms  give  from  either  side  of  a 
longitudinal  corridor  with  the  gymnasium  at  the  rear  on  the 
axis  of  the  main  fa9ade.  In  the  Hamburg  school  there 
are    two    entrances  from    the    principal    street;  in  the    Basel 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     19.       MIXED    SCHOOL    AT    MANNHEIM. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


33 


school  there  is  but 
one  main  entrance, 
but  there  are  two 
other  entrances  at 
the  rear. 

In  the  Hamburg 
school  the  two  stair- 
cases are  nearly  op- 
posite the  two  main 
entrances ;  in  the 
Basel  school  the 
staircases  are  at 
either  end  of  the 
longitudinal  cor- 
ridor. The  archi- 
tectural treatment 
of  this  Hamburg 
school,  as  in  Ge- 
meindeschule  No. 
204,  Berlin,  is  that 
which  is  very  con- 
stant in  German 
elementary  schools,  so  constant,  in  fact,  that  it  may  be  con- 
sidered almost  typical. 

The  Mannheim  school  (Fig.  19)  is  an  example  of  a  double 
|_-plan,  with  the 
gymnasium  c  o  m- 
pleting  the  court- 
3'ard  on  the  first 
floor.  It  has  forty- 
two  class  rooms. 
The  toilet  rooms 
are  isolated  from 
the  building  in 
"  towers,"  as  is  com- 
monly done  in  hos-  burgerschule,  Dresden. 


FIG.    20. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
BURGERSCHULE,     DRESDEN. 


34 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


GIRLS- P.- «. 


BoVd     PLAY-  GROUHD 


HALF   PLAN    FOR    FIRST    FLOOR. 
FIG.     21.        WILLEMER    AND    FRANKENSTEINER    SCHOOL,     FRANKFORT. 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.     2  2.       BEZIRKSSCHULE    ON    THE    GARTENFRONT,    MAYENCE. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


35 


pitals.  Access  is  had  to  these  toilet  rooms  from  each  floor. 
A  plan  of  a  smaller  school,  of  like  type,  is  shown  by  a  BUr- 
gerschule  at    Dresden  (Fig.  20). 

All  of  the  foregoing  buildings  follow  strictly  the  system  of 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN, 
FIG.     23.        SCHOOL    AT    WINTERTHUR,     SWITZERLAND. 

left-side  lighting  in  class  rooms,  and  in  none  is  there  any 
special  arrangement  made  for  the  disposal  of  pupils'  clothing. 
The  Willemer  and  Frankensteiner  school,  Frankfort  (Fig.  21), 
has  alcoves  for  pupils'  clothing  off  the  corridor.     This  build- 


FIG.    24. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
SCHOOL    AT    BUDA-PESTH,     HUNGARY. 


ing  is   four   stories   in   height.     The  separate  gymnasiums  for 
boys  and  girls  are  unusual  features. 

The  Bezirksschule,  on  the  Gartenfront,  Mayence  (Fig.  22), 
shows  a  building  which  follows  the  requirements  of  left-side 


36 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


lighting,  and  which  has  separate  enclosures  for  clothing.  A 
portion  of  the  gymnasium  serves  also  for  the  aula.  This  is  a 
four-story  building. 

The  school  at  Winterthur,  Switzerland  (Fig.  23),  has  ward- 
robes adjoining  each  class  room,  and 
has  left-hand  lighting. 

The  Buda-Pesth  school  (Fig.  24) 
shows  rooms  for  school  records  occu- 
pying space  available  for  wardrobes. 
The  Munich  school,  illustrated  b}' 
Fig.  25,  also  follows  the  Teutonic 
principle  of  class-room  lighting,  and 
has  a  separate  wardrobe  immediately 
adjacent  to  each  class  room,  and  only 
differing  from  this  feature  as  found  in 
the  best-arranged  American  schools, 
in  that  access  thereto  can  be  had 
from  the  class  rooms  only,  and  not 
from  the  corridor  as  well  as  the  class 
rooms. 

In  the  Vevey  school,  Switzerland 
(Fig.  26),  the  pupils'  clothing  is  in 
part  hung  in  separate  enclosures,  and 
in  part  in  the  corridors.  The  single 
windows,  in  the  wall  of  corner  rooms 
opposite  the  pupils,  are  simply  re- 
tained for  architectural  effect,  and  all 
light  from  them  is  cut  off  by  heavy 
shades.  The  building  has  two  dis- 
tinct divisions,  —  one  for  the  primar}' 
and  one  for  the  upper  division.  The  as- 
sembly hall  is  used  in  common.  The 
,    ^    ^^^  primary   department  has  eight   class 

^'™  FLOOR  PLAN.  rooms,    each    accommodating    sixty 

FIG.  25.     SCHOOL  AT  pupils,  and  four    class    rooms,    each 

MUNICH.  accommodating     forty-eight     pupils. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


37 


SCHOOL    AT    MUNICH. 


In  the  upper  division  there  are 
to  thirty-six  pupils.  In  the 
basement,  whicli  is  well  above 
ground,  is  the  gymnasium. 
Apartments  are  provided  for 
the  janitor  and  for  the  teachers. 

Examples  of  Swiss  schools, 
in  which  the  most  approved 
method  of  class-room  lighting 
is  disregarded,  are  those  at 
Winterthur,  at  Aarau,  and  at 
Basel. 

In  the  Winterthur  school 
(Fig.  27)  there  are  windows  in 
the  walls  opposite  the  teacher 
and  opposite  the  pupils  in  six 
of  the  twenty-three  class 
rooms.  The  Aarau  school 
(Fig.  28)  is  not  a  mixed 
school.  It  has  three  divisions: 
the  primary  class  rooms  are  for 
seventy-two,  the  intermediate 
for  thirty-four,  and  those  for  the 
upper  division  for  twenty-eight 
pupils.  On  the  first  floor,  at  the 
end  of  each  of  the  wings,  are 


six   class    rooms    for    thirty 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.  26.   SCHOOL  AT  VEVEY, 
SWITZERLAND. 


38 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.     27. 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
SCHOOL    AT    WINTERTHUR,     SWITZERLAND. 


placed  gymnasiums,  one  for  each  sex.  The  assembly  hall 
is  on  the  third  floor  in  the  central  position.  Adjoining  this 
hall  is  a  room  for  examinations  on  the  right,  and  a  music  room 


ONE   HALF  THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     28.       SCHOOL    AT    AARAU,    SWITZERLAND. 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS. 


39 


on  the  left.  Drawing  rooms 
and  school  museums  oc- 
cupy the  space  in  the  stories 
above  the  gymnasiums. 
Settles  are  provided  in  the 
corridors  for  the  children 
awaiting  the  opening  of  the 
school. 

Windows  in  both  walls 
of  corner  rooms  are  very 
generally  found  in  Swiss 
schools.  As  in  the  case 
above  noted,  the  windows 
opposite  the  teacher's  desk 
are  not  designed  to  increase 

the  lighting  of  the  class  rooms,  but  to  enhance  the  architec- 
tural effect  of  the  buildings.  The  Swiss  give  great  importance 
to  their  schools  and  strive  to  make  them  satisfactory  archi- 
tectural monuments.     They  are  the  most  carefully  designed 


FIG.    29. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

mAdchen-mittelschule, 
darmstadt. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG,    30.       SCHOOL    AT    STUTTGART. 


40 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


and  constructed  public  buildings  to  be  found  in  any  of  their 
communities. 

The  Madchen-Mittelschule,  at  Darmstadt  (Fig.  29),  pre- 
sents another  example  of  the  use  of  single  windows  in  the 
short  side  of  corner  class  rooms,  presumably  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  architectural  effect.  This  building  has  sixteen 
class  rooms,  a  singing  class  room,  a  drawing  room,  a  gym- 
nasium which  serves  also  as  an  aula,  and  the  customary  rooms 
for  the  administration.  ' 

The  school  at  Stuttgart  (Fig.  30),  here  shown,  has  the  least 
scientific  lighting  arrangement  of  any  German  school  that  the 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     31.       BEZIRKSSCHULE    ON    THE    PESTALOZZI-STRASSE,     DRESDEN. 

writer  has  found.  Indeed,  one  would  have  to  look  to  the  plans 
of  American  schools  built  twenty-five  years  ago  to  find  a  treat- 
ment equally  unsatisfactory  in  this  respect.  If  this  plan  is 
compared  with  that  of  the  Bezirksschule  on  Pestalozzi-Strasse, 
Dresden  (Fig.  31),  which  is  similar  in  arrangement,  the  dif- 
ference will  be  evident  between  a  building  with  scientifically 
lighted  class  rooms  and  one  in  which  this  consideration  is 
ignored. 

The  rules  of  the  French  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  re- 
quire that,  except  in  one-room  schools  where  fifty  are  per- 
mitted, there  shall  not  be  more  than  forty  pupils  in  a  class 
room,  and  every  class  room  must  have  from  4  to  5  sq.  ft.  of 
floor  surface  and  an  air  area  of  180  cu.  ft.  for  each  pupil. 
These  rules  require  that  the   lighting  shall  be  only  from  the 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


41 


left  hand  of  the  pupils,  except  under  circumstances  where 
sufficient  light  cannot  otherwise  be  gained.  In  no  case  is  it 
permissible  to  gain  light  from  the  wall  opposite  the  teacher  or 
the  pupils.  If  light  is  admitted  from  two  sides,  it  must  be 
from  the  two  sides  on  either  hand  of  the  pupils. 

Windows  on  the  right  side  of  the  pupils,  if  to  be  used  only 
for  aeration  of  the  room  and  for  the  admission  of  sunlight 
during  the  absence  of  the  pupils,  are  accepted.  It  is  required 
that  all  class-room  windows  should  be  square-headed. 

Where  light  is  from  one  side,  it  is  required  that  the  window 
lintel  shall  be  at  a  height  above  the  floor  of  at  least  two  thirds 
the  width  of  the  room.  In  all  cases  the  bottom  of  the  lintel  must 
be  level  with  the  ceiling.  The  window-sills  must  be  beveled 
and  set  4  ft.  above  the  floor.  Casement  sash  are  required 
and  also  transom  bars,  but  these  latter  features  must  be  as 
small  as  requisite  strength  will  permit.  The  minimum  ceiling 
height  is  about  13  ft.,  2^  ins. 

Where  lighting  is  from  one  side  only,  the  ceiling  must  have 
a  height  of  at  least  two  thirds  the  width  of  the  room  plus  the 
depth  of  the  window  jamb.  Where  lighting  is  from  two  sides, 
the  area  of  glass  must  equal  the  area  of  the  desks.  The  ceil- 
ings must  be  flat  and  plastered;  no  cornices  are  permitted  in 
class  rooms,  and  the  corners  and  the  angles  of  walls  and  ceil- 
ing are  required  to  be  rounded 
upon  a  3i\-in.  radius.  As 
has  been  previously  noted  in 
French  schools,  agreeable  sur- 
roundings for  the  pupils  are 
given  especial  consideration. 
The  playgrounds  are  regarded 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  F 
landscape  gardener,  and  the 
covered  playgrounds  are 
especial  I}-  happy  in  their 
adaptation  to  their  purpose  fig.  32.  plan  of  mixed  single 
and  in  the  consideration  given  class  french  school. 


42 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  33.  PLAN  OF  SALLE 
d'aSILE,  ETIENNE,  LI- 
MOGES,    FRANCE. 


to  their  design.  A  peculiar  feature 
of  the  mixed  schools  is. that  the  bo3's 
and  girls,  in  the  same  class  room, 
are  sometimes  grouped  upon  either 
side  of  a  screen,  which  runs  through 
the  center  of  the  room.  The  plan  of 
a  class  room  so  arranged  is  given  in 
Fig.  32. 

The  French  infant  schools,  called 
"  Salles  d'Asile,"  are  noteworthy. 
These  schools  have  covered  and 
open  playgrounds,  a  school  room,  a 
dining  room,  a  small  kitchen,  and  a 
bath  room.  Apartments  for  the  mis- 
tress, not  accessible  from  the  school, 
are  always  provided.  The  boys  and 
girls  are  seated  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  room,  and  when  in  the  gallery 
they  are  separated  by  a  wide  gang- 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.    34.       FRENCH    GIRLS'    SCHOOL. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


43 


way  painted  black.  The  covered  playgrounds  are  provided 
with  seats,  and  are  heated  in  cold  weather  by  stoves.  Food 
is  prepared  tor  the  children  in  the  kitchen,  and  hammocks  or 
beds  are  always  provided  to  receive  those  who  show  signs  of 
fatigue.     These    schools  are  usually  conducted  by  sisters  of 


FIRST   FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.    35.       PLANS   OF    A    MIXED    SCHOOL,     PARIS. 


44 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  religious  orders.      The  plan  of  such  a  school  is  shown  by 

Fig.  Z?>- 

Fig.  34  shows  the  plan  of  a  French  school  for  girls,  three 
stories  in  height,  having  six  class  rooms  on  each  story. 
Access  is  had  to  these  class  rooms  from  an  open  gallery, 
whicn    is    presumably   iitted    with   sash   in  the   winter.     The 


STREET    FAgADE    OF    A    PARISIAN    SECONDARY    SCHOOL, 

building  has  a  large  covered  playground,  which  is  a  constant 
feature  of  French  schools. 

The  plans  of  a  French  school  for  boys  and  girls  in  Paris  are 
shown  b}'  Fig.  35.  On  the  first  floor  are  the  covered  play- 
grounds, the  gymnasium,  the  infants'  school,  and  one  class 
room.  There  are  five  class  rooms  and  a  drawing  room  in  each 
of  the  three  upper  stories. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ELEMEXTARY    SCHOOLS    OF    SCANDINAVIAN    COUNTRIES. 

Immediately  after  the  Reformation  the  kings  of  Sweden 
sought  to  extend  and  improve  popuhir  education,  and  it  is 
asserted  that  in  1637  few  children  in  the  rural  districts  were 
unable  to  read  and  write.  In  1640,  Qiieen  Christina  built  a 
school  in  every  Swedish  town,  and,  in  1686,  Charles  XI.  for- 
bade the  marriage  of  illiterates.  As  a  consequence,  through- 
out the  rural  districts  a  system  of  itinerant  schools  was  estab- 
lished and  supported  by  the  several  communities.  In  17S6, 
efforts  were  made  to  establish  permanent  in  place  of  itinerant 
schools;  but  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were 
but  165  schools  of  the  former  class.  In  1842,  the  school  system 
was  reorganized  and  there  were  786  permanent  schools.  In 
1858,  the  elementary  schools  were  divided  into  the  primary 
and  the  elementary  grades  proper,  and  in  1871  there  were,  ex- 
clusive of  Stockholm,  6,108  elementary  schools,  subdivided 
as  follows:  2,268  permanent,  1,164  itinerant  clementar}^,  and 
2,676  primar}'  schools. 

Norway  was  more  backward  than  Sweden  in  establishing 
popular  education,  and  it  was  not  until  1814,  when  the  latter 
country  passed  from  the  sov^ereignty  of  Denmark  and  was 
united  with  Sweden,  that  serious  efforts  were  made  to  improve 
the  elementary  schools;  although  by  a  decree  of  1736  it  had 
been  provided  that  no  child  could  be  confirmed  who  had  not 
attended  school,  and  in  1736  and  1741  laws  were  passed 
requiring  that  all  children,  from  the  age  of  seven  until  confir- 
mation (usually  in  the  fifteenth  3'ear),  should  have  instruction 
in  reading  for  at  least  twelve  weeks  annually.  School  attend- 
ance is  now  compulsory  from  the  seventh  to  the  fourteenth 
year,  and  each  child,  from  six  and  one  half  to  fifteen  years,  is 
entitled  to  gratuitous  instruction. 

The  city  schools  are  divided  into  three  grades:   the  first  for 


46  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

children  from  seven  to  ten,  the  second  for  those  from  ten  to 
twelve,  and  the  third  for  those  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years 
of  age. 

The  country  schools  have  the  primary  and  the  higher  ele- 
mentary grades.  The  rural  population  is  widely  scattered,  and 
as  there  are  no  villages  there  are  many  itinerant  schools,  few 
of  which  have  school  buildings;  but  each  householder,  who 
has  a  room  of  sufficient  size,  provides  quarters  in  his  turn  and 
receives  rent  therefor. 

The  school  system  of  Denmark  is  almost  identical  with  that 
of  Norway. 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland,  while  a  part  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  is,  or  at  least  has  been,  independent  in  her  adminis- 
trative and  legislative  powers,  and  from  the  Russian  school  sys- 
tem, and  has  therein  such  similarity  with  Norwa}',  Sweden,  and 
Denmark  that  her  schools  may  properly  be  considered  with 
those  of  the  Scandinavian  countries. 

As  in  German}',  co-education  prevails  in  the  rural  districts 
of  these  countries;  but  in  cities  separate  or  rigidly  divided 
schools  are  provided  for  the  two  sexes.  While  in  the  cities 
large  buildings,  some  accommodating  nearly  two  thousand 
pupils,  have  been  built,  in  the  country  only  small  schools, 
accommodating  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  children,  are 
found;  these  serve  widely  extended  districts. 

No  definite  regulations  for  the  building  of  elementary 
schools  are  prescribed  by  law,  but  individual  cities  and  com- 
munities none  the  less  construct  substantial  and  convenient 
buildings  which  are  planned  with  due  regard  for  hygienic  con- 
ditions. In  country  districts  one  and  two  class  schools  have 
usually,  under  the  same  roof,  a  teacher's  dwelling.  In  the  cities 
we  find  structures  accommodating  many  classes,  usually  with 
a  separate  house  for  the  master. 

In  the  country  a  g3'mnasmm  is  seldom  found,  but  there  are 
always  playgrounds  fitted  with  simple  gymnastic  appliances, 
of  which  the  spring-board  is  held  to  be  most  essential.  The 
school  yards  are  generally  provided  with  covered  playgrounds. 


Er.EMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


47 


as  in  the  English  and  French  schools.  Simple  and  natural 
movements  are  the  characteristic  features  -of  Swedish  gymnas- 
tics, which  have  been  long  a  part  of  the  curriculum  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  Scandinavian  countries.  Simple  apparatus 
only  is  used:  horizontal  bars,  ladders,  the  horse,  and  a  few 
other  pieces  of  apparatus.  But  the  use  which  is  made  of  them 
differs  from  that  in  vogue  under  the  German  system;  there  are 
no  athletic  exercises,  but  rather  a  series  of  movements  and 
positions  based  upon  hygienic  and  physiological  principles  in 


J  I 

FIG,    36.       GYMNASIUM    OF    THE    MARIA    KIRCHSPIELS    SCHOOL, 
STOCKHOLM,    SWEDEN. 

which  sudden  and  violent  contraction  of  the  muscles  are 
avoided. 

Fig.  36  shows  the  plan  of  a  gymnasium  hall  with  its  adjoin- 
ing toilet  rooms,  —  that  of  an  elementary  school  at  Stock- 
holm. This  hall  is  over  41  ft.  wide  and  77^  ft.  long.  On 
each  side  of  the  entrance  hall  is  a  dressing  room.  Adjoining 
one  of  these  are  toilet  rooms  for  teachers.  On  this  side,  be- 
tween the  end  of  one  wing  of  the  school  and  the  gymnasium 
hall,  are  the  pupils'  toilet  rooms. 

Domestic  training  schools  have  been  established  where  girls 
from  the  age  often  are  instructed  in  various  domestic  branches, 


48 


SCHOOl.    ARCHITECTURE. 


cooking,  washing,  and  ironing,  etc.,  opened  through  the  efforts 
of  private  societies.  In  many  cities  there  are  cooking  schools 
for  girls,  pupils  of  the  elementary  and  intermediate  schools, 
who  are  from  twelve  to  fifteen  3'ears  of  age.  Generally  a  class 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  girls  takes  a  course  covering  a  period  of 
a  month,  during  which  time  they  are  excused  from  all  other 
classes.  In  many  cases  the  pupils  are  charged  three  or  four 
cents  daily  for  the  material  which  they  use.  Stockholm  is 
especially  well  provided  with  elementary  school  dining  halls 
designed  for  serving  midday  meals  to  the  pupils,  in  some  cases 
dail}',  and  in  others  three  times  a  week  during  a  greater  part 
of  the  year.  The  expense  is  shared  by  the  parish  and  certain 
charitable  societies.  The  meal  consists  of  two  dishes;  the 
poorest  children  are  served  without  charge,  and  those  who  can, 
pay  one  and  one  half  to  three  cents  for  the  luncheon.  The 
cooking  schools  are  established  after  the  German  models  and 
have  cooking  stoves,  kitchen  tables,  and  dresser  boards,  and 
a  demonstration  table  for  the  teacher.  In  another  room  the 
girls  are  also  often  instructed  in  washing,  mangling,  and  ironing. 
Most  of  the  cooking  schools  are  in  the  basement  or  on  the 


FIG,    37.       PLAN    OF    SCHOOL    KITCHEN    IN    THE    MCELLERGADENS    SCHOOLo 
CHRISTIANIA,    NORWAY. 
'■  Sink.  5.  Demonstration  Table.  9.  Linen  Closet. 


2.  Cooking  Range. 

3.  Gas  Stove. 

4.  Work  Table. 


6.  Wall  Table. 

7.  Raised  Platform. 

8.  Pantry. 


10.  Boiler. 

11.  Boiling  Kettle. 

12.  Cupboard. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


49 


ground  floor,  but  to  prevent  the  overheating  of  the  class  rooms 
above,  and  to  keep  smells  from  the  building,  these  rooms  have 
recently  been  assigned  to  the  top  stories. 

The  school  kitchen  of  the  Moellergadens  school  in  Chris- 
tiania  is  shown  by  Fig.  37.  It  is  in  the  attic,  lighted  by  a  sky- 
light. The  design  of  the  room  is  somewhat  over  27  by  ^^  ft., 
with  an  anteroom  9  ft.  wide  and  31  ft.  in  length.  There  are 
four  kitchen  stoves,  two  small  work-tables  and  one  large  one, 
a  demonstration  table,  two  wall  tables,  two  sinks  without 
and  two  with   running  water,  one  gas  stove,  a  stepped  plat- 


COOKING    CLASS,     CHRISTIANIA,     NORWAY. 

form,  and  opposite  to  it  a  large  blackboard.  In  the  anteroom 
there  are  a  large  washing  stand,  a  boiling  kettle,  boiler,  two 
cupboards,  and  hooks  along  the  wall  for  coats,  etc.  Adjoin- 
ing the  kitchen  there  are  on  one  side  a  pantr}^  and  a  linen 
closet,  and  on  the  other  an  attic  room. 

"  Slo3d "  training  in  elementary  schools  originated  in 
Sweden,  and  is  almost  universal  in  Scandinavian  schools. 
Boys  are  taught  to  use  ordinary  implements,  especially  cutting 
tools,  and  sometimes  the  turning-lathe,  wood-cutting,  and  less 


50  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

frequently  metal-working  tools.  The  training  for  girls  is  in 
dressmaking  and  plain  sewing,  to  which  is  sometimes  added 
embroidery,  spinning,  weaving,  and  braiding. 

In  Sweden  there  are  two  systems,  —  the  "  Naasche  "  and  the 
"  Gothenburg."  In  Norway  the  former  system  only  obtains. 
In  this  system  a  single  line  of  work  is  followed,  and  the  reg- 
ular school  teachers  are  employed  as  instructors;  while  the 
Gothenburg  system  includes  several  lines  of  work,  and  master 
mechanics  are  emplo3'ed  as  teachers. 

At  first  an  ordinary  class  room  was  used  for  Sloyd  work,  but 
in  later  buildings  rooms  are  expressly  fitted  for  the  purpose; 
these  are  either  in  the  school  building  or  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood,  and  they  are  now,  in  Norway,  always  on  the 
ground  floor,  the  basement  being  considered  unhealthful  for 
school  purposes  and  unfavorable  for  the  storage  of  tools.  A 
Sloyd  room,  if  furnished  with  joiner's  benches  only,  requires 
an  area  of  9  sq.  ft.  for  each  child. 

Salomen,  the  originator  of  the  Naasche  system,  advises  that 
the  glazed  surfaces  of  a  Sloyd  room  should  amount  to  25  or 
30  per  cent,  of  the  floor  area,  and  the  height  of  the  window- 
sills  should  be  3^  ft.;  the  window-ledges  should  slant  so  that 
nothing  can  be  placed  upon  them.  The  walls  should  be 
wainscoted  with  wood  to  a  height   of  at  least  6^  ft. 

In  woodworking,  Salomen  uses  the  following  tools:  knife, 
draw-knife,  jack-knife,  tr3nng-plane,  smoothing-plane,  toothing- 
plane,  compass-plane,  spoke-shave,  bow-saw,  dovetail-saw, 
turn-saw,  hand-saw,  tenon-saw,  compass-saw,  groove-saw, 
saw-set  and  clamps,  flat  and  round-jawed  pliers,  pincers,  flat, 
half-round,  round,  and  triangular  files,  scraper,  firmer-chisel, 
mortise-chisel,  gauges,  marking-gauge,  marking-point,  cutting- 
gauge,  brad-awl,  brace  with  set  of  bits,  axe,  hammer,  mallet, 
compasses,  square,  bevel,  screwdriver,  meter-rule,  wire  cutter, 
punch,  spoon-iron,  hand-screws,  and  shooting  board. 

The  joiners'  bench  for  a  pupil  is  2  ft.,  4  ins.  to  3  ft.  long, 
and  about  2^  ft.  high.  The  slab  is  of  hard  wood.  These 
benches   are  fastened  to  the  floor  and  are  placed  so  that  the 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


51 


teacher  can  easily  inspect  tlie  class.     A  single  is  preferred  to 
a  double  row. 

The  joiner's  bench  for  pupils  used  in  the  Mikkelsen  system 
(Fig.  38)  takes  up  less  room  than  that  used  in  the  Naasche 
system,  and  permits   good    oversight   over   the    work.      The 


^^«%^ 


FIG.     38.        SLOYD    BENCH    USED    IN    THE    MIKKELSEN    SYSTEM. 

single  joiner's  benches  are  fastened  to  a  common  middle  piece 
10  to  12  ins.  wide.  At  the  end  there  must  be  a  passage  space 
of  I  ft.,- 10  ins.  to  2  ft.,  8  ins.  If  the  row  is  long,  it  is  advisable 
to  have  a  little  passage  between  the  benches.  On  each  side, 
along  the  row,  there  must  be  a  passage  of  3  ft.,  4  ins.  If  there 
are  two  rows,  the  passage  between  them  must  be  of  about 
6]/i  ft.,  so  that  all  pupils  can  use  the  saw  at  the  same  time.  If 
the  room  to  be  equipped  is  not  expressly  designed  for  the  pur- 
pose, is  too  broad  for.  a  single  row  of  double-sided  benches, 
and  too  narrow  for  two  rows,  one  row  of  double-sided  and 
one  row  of  one-sided  benches  are  best  used. 
Mikkelsen's  bench  permits  the  use  of  both 
hands. 

A  material  room,  next  to  the  Sloyd  room, 
is  provided,  which  is  fitted  with  cases  from 
floor  to  ceiling.  The  models  are  kept  in 
cases  or  on  shelves. 

Fig.  39  shows  the  plijn  of  a  one-room 
school  in  Nyborg,  a  Danish  fishing  village. 
It   is    a    wooden    building,    shingled.      The 


FIRST  FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIG.  39.  SCHOOL 
AT  NYBORG, 
DENMARK. 


52 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


corridor  serves  as  a  wardrobe.  A  wooden  staircase  leads  to 
the  teacher's  dwelling  in  the  upper  story.  The  class  room 
measures  20^  ft.  in  width  and  about  27^  ft.  in  length.  Ad- 
joining the  class  room  there  is  a  small  room  for  the  teacher. 
The  teacher's  dwelling  consists  of  one  room  and  the  kitchen 
in  the  upper  story  and  two  more  rooms  in  the  attic. 

The  wooden  buildings  of  Finland  are  built  on  stone  founda- 
tions with  log  walls;  the  space  between  the  logs  is  filled  with 
moss,  wood-wool,  or  hemp-wool.  After  the  building  is  thor- 
oughl}-  dr}',  the  space  between  the  logs  is  refilled  from  within 


ELEVATION    OF   SCHOOL,    NVBORG,    DENMARK. 

and  without.  The  outside  walls  are  covered  with  birch-bark 
or  pasteboard,  over  which  is  put  a  casing  of  boards  tongued 
and  grooved  and  painted  with  oil.  The  inside  walls  are  cov- 
ered with  pasteboard,  which  is  papered  and  painted.  Fig.  40 
shows  the  details  of  this  construction.  If  there  is  no  basement, 
the  floors  of  the  rooms  on  the  ground  floor  have  always  an  air 
space  underneath,  and  logs  spaced  two  feet  on  centers  are 
used  for  floor  joists,  upon  which  is  laid  boarding  with  a  filling 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


53 


of  moss,  and  upon  this  is  laid  a  la3'er  of  dry,  clean  sand,  above 
which  comes  the  flooring  set  on  screeds.  The  ceiling  logs 
have  a  casing  of  fir  or  pine  boards.     The  walls  of  the  class 

Window 


FIG.    40. 


SECTION    SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION    OF    FLOORS    AND    WALL    OF 
LOG    SCHOOL    IN    FINLAND. 


rooms  are  frequently  wainscoted  to  the  ceiling.     Floors  and 
ceilings  are  varnished  or  painted. 

Fig.  41  gives  the  plan  of  a  two-room  school  in  Lindholmen,, 
Sweden.  There  is  a  Slo3'd  room  in  conjunction  with  each 
class  room;    the   hallway  is  used  for  hanging   the    out-door 


CLASS    HM    V 


CX-ASS   I?At 

3o'x2,a' 


zBxJia' 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    41.       SCHOOL    AT    LINDHOLMEN,    SWEDEN. 


54 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


clothing.  The  class  rooms  are  about  29  by  30  ft.,  accom- 
modating fifty-six  pupils,  and  have  windows  at  the  back  as 
well  as  the  left-hand  side  of  the  pupils.  There  is  an  apart- 
ment for  the  teacher. 

A  sixteen-room  school  in  Norrkoeping,  Sweden,  illustrated 


SECOND   FLdOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    42.       SCHOOL   AT    NORRKCEPING,    SWEDEN. 

by  Fig.  42,  has  eight  small  class  rooms,  about  20  by  25  ft.,  with 
three  windows  on  the  long  and  one  window  on  the  short  side, 
each  with  its  own  corridor  wardrobe.  There  are  eight  large 
class  rooms,  21  by  35  ft.,  with  a  corridor  wardrobe  serving 
each  two  rooms. 


SCHOOL    AT    NORRKCEPING,    SWEDEN. 


At  Gceteborg  there  is  an  interesting  type  ol  Swedish  school 
(Figs.  43  and  44).  It  has  eleven  large  and  three  small  ele- 
mentar}',  and  eleven  primary  class  rooms,  a  gymnasium,  and 
five  Sloyd  rooms.    The  class  rooms  are  21  ft.  wide  and  lighted 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


55 


from  left-hand  side  only.     Outside  clothing  is  hung  in  the  cor- 
ridors. 

Fig.  45  shows  the  second-floor  plan  of  a  school  for  six  hun- 
dred and  eighty-four  pupils  in  Gesle,  Sweden.  The  primary 
school  is  on  the  ground  floor  and  has  six  class  rooms  about 


FIG.    43. 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
SCHOOL    AT    GCETEBORG,    SWEDEN. 


2oJ^  ft.  wide  and  23  ft.  long.  In  the  upper  stories  is  the  ele- 
mentary school,  with  four  class  rooms  on  each  floor  about 
20^  ft.  wide  and  34^^  ft.  long.  The  ground-floor  class  rooms 
have  each  three  windows,  and  those  in  the  upper  stories  four. 
The  height  of  ceilings  is  a  trifle  over  13  ft.  The  Sloyd  rooms 
are  in  the  basement,  lighted  through  an  ample  area.  There 
are  apartments  for  the  janitor. 


FIG.    44. 


BASEMENT  FLOOR. 
SCHOOL    AT    GCETEBORG,    SWEDEN. 


S6 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Johannes  school,  Stockholm  (Fig  46),  was  built  in 
1 89 1,  and  accommodates  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  pupils. 
On  the  ground  floor  there  are  five  class  rooms  for  forty-two 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    45.       SCHOOL    AT    GESLE,    SWEDEN. 

and  three  for  forty-nine  pupils,  and  a  dining  hall  between  them; 
on  the  next  two  floors  six  classes  for  forty-two  and  four  for 
forty-nine  pupils,  and  a  large  room  used  for  drawing  and  sing- 
ing. In  the  attic  there  are  three  Slo3'd  rooms.  Class  rooms 
arc  215^  ft.  wide  and  lighted  from  left-hand  side  only.  There 
are  apartments  for  the  master  and  janitor. 

Fig.   47    shows    the    second-floor    plan    of    the    school    in 


SECOND   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     46.       JOHANNES    SCHOOL,    STOCKHOLM,    SWEDEN. 

Trondhjem,  Norway.  The  entrance  to  the  two  divisions  is 
from  the  playgrounds  on  either  side  of  the  building.  On  the 
principal  fronts  of  the  building  are  gardens:  one  the  garden  of 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


57 


the  teacher,  with  his  dwelling-house  adjoining;  the  other,  a 
small  school  garden.  In  the  three  floors  there  are  eighteen 
class  rooms,  one  conference  room  for  the  men  teachers,  and 


JOHANNES   SCHOOL,    STOCKHOLM,    SWEDEN. 

one  for  the  women  teachers.  The  gymnasium  is  in  the  cen- 
tral section  of  the  ground  floor.  On  the  ground  floor  of  a  side 
building  there  is  the  Sloyd  room,  a  room  for  Slo3d  material, 
and  the  wash  kitchen  for  the  principal  and  his  servants.  The 
Sloyd  room  gives  directly  from  the  corridor  and  has  twenty- 
eight  joiner's  benches  for  pupils,  one  joiner's  bench  for  the 
teacher,  a  turning-lathe,  a  grinding  stone,  and  cupboards  for 
the  models,  tools,  and  unfinished  work.     The  adjoining  room 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    47.       SCHOOL    AT    TRONDHJEM,    NORWAY. 

is  used  for  special  instruction.  Above  the  Sloyd  room  is  a 
school  kitchen  with  an  anteroom,  a  wash  room,  and  an  office 
for  the  master. 


58 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig.  48  represents  the  plan  of  an  elementary  school  of 
Christiania  in  its  latest  typical  development.  It  will  be  noted 
that  left-hand  lighting  and  separate  wardrobes  are  provided 
for  all  class  rooms;  also,  as  in  man}'  of  the  smaller  schools  in 
Scandinavian  countries,  there  is  no  general  corridor,  but  pas- 
sage from  one  part  of  the  building  to  the  other  is  through  the 
class  rooms,  —  an  undesirable  arrangement.  The  building  has 
three  divisions, — for  infants,  boys,  and  girls,  —  each  with  a 
special  entrance  and  staircase.  In  the  left  wing  are  ten  class 
rooms  for  boys,  one  Sloyd  room  with  a  material  room,  and  a 
master's  room;  the  girls'  division  has  the  same  arrangement, 
while  the  central  division  has  six  class  rooms  for  the  primary 
grade,  an  office  with  an  anteroom  for  the  master,  a  room  for 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    48.       VAALERENGENS   SCHOOL,    CHRISTIANIA,    NORWAY. 

teaching  apparatus,  and  four  class  rooms  for  special  purposes, 
such  as  needlework,  drawing,  and  natural  history.  The  class 
rooms  are  31/^  ft.  long,  22  ft.,  4  ins.  wide,  and  13  ft.,  9  ins. 
high. 

Altogether  different  from  this  general  type  is  the  Gruner- 
lokken  School,  Christiania,  one  of  the  latest  examples  in  that 
city  (Fig.  49).  In  one  corner  of  the  lot  is  the  master's  house, 
and  on  the  two  opposite  corners  are  the  privies  for  the  bo3'S 
and  for  the  girls.  In  the  basement,  on  the  south  side,  is  a 
kitchen,  with  a  dining  room  for  the  pupils,  and  the  shower- 
baths  with  dressing  room.  On  the  ground  floor  there  are  ten 
class  rooms,  rooms  for  the  teachers,  and  two  rooms  for  col- 
lections and  apparatus.     There  are   nine  class  rooms  on  the 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


59 


second  floor,  an  office,  and  ante-chamber  for  the  master;  the 
gymnasium,  with  a  wardrobe  adjoining,  is  on  this  floor  and 
occupies  the  height  of  two  stories,  with  a  gallery  over  the 


SECOND  FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.    49.       SCHOOL    AT    CHRISTIANIA,    NORWAY. 

wardrobe.  On  the  third  floor  there  are  ten  class  rooms;  and 
on  the  attic  floor  Sloyd  rooms,  rooms  for  singing  and  drawing, 
and  storage  spaces.  Over  the  gymnasium  there  is  a  large 
school  kitchen,  equipped  with  four  kitchen  stoves,  a  gas  stove, 
and  the  other  necessar}-  appointments,  and  lighted  by  a  sk}'- 
light. 

Fig.  50  represents  a  school  in  Odense,  Denmark.    It  is  a  two- 


1 

1 

1 

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1  CLTVSS 

w 
K 
b 

1 

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1    ^»">«.;z«,' 

cl:a55 

y  ^ 

CLASS    1 

FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.     50.       SCHOOL    AT    ODENSE,    COPENHAGEN,    DENMARK. 


6o 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


story  building  with  six  class  rooms  on  each  floor.  In  the  base- 
ment there  is  the  dwelling  ol'  the  janitor,  the  shower-bath, 
with  ten  shower-baths  and  dressing  room  adjoining,  two  rooms 


SCHOOL   AT   ODENSE,    COPENHAGEN. 

for  Sloyd  work,  and  coal  rooms.     The  gymnasium  and  the 
privies  are  in  separate  buildings. 

A  school  at  Frederiksberg,  Denmark  (Fig.  51),  has  twenty- 
one  class  rooms,  each  for  thirty  children.  For  each  two 
rooms  an  ante-corridor  serves  as  a  wardrobe.  In  the  base- 
ment there  is  a  bath-room,  with  ten  shower-baths  and  a  dress- 
ing room,  a  large  dining  room,  a  wash  kitchen,  and  furnace 
and  coal  rooms.  On  the  ground  floor  are  five  class  rooms 
with  a  small  cloak  room,  one  room  for  the  master,  and  one  for 
the  schoolmistress,  an  oflice  for  the  supervisor,  a  room  for  col- 


FIG.     51. 


SECOND  FLOOR   PLAN. 
SCHOOL    AT    FREDERIKSBERG,    DENMARK. 


lections,  and  a  dwelling  for  the  janitor.  On  each  of  the  two 
next  floors  are  eight  class  rooms  with  corridor  wardrobes  ad- 
joining each  room.     On  the  fourth  floor  is  a   large  drawing 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


6l 


room   and   the   master's   dwelling,  consisting   of   five  rooms: 
kitchen,  servant's  room,  two  pantries,  etc. 

A  well-defined  type  of  elementary  school  building  has  been 
developed  in  Copenhagen,  and  nearly  all  are  built  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  general  scheme:  The  school  is  di- 


SCHOOL    AT    FREDERIKSBERG,    DENMARK, 

vided  by  a  partition  wall  into  two  sNmmetrical  halves,  one  for 
boys  and  one  for  girls;  it  has  two  staircases,  which  are  either 
in  the  middle  of  the  fa9ades  of  the  oblong  plan,  or  on  one  of 
the  long  sides  of  the  building.  In  each  story  are  six  or  eight 
class  rooms  with  wardrobes  adjoining.  Each  class  room  is 
designed  for  an  average  of  thirt^'-five  children,  seated  at 
double  desks.  The  rooms  are  heated  by  steam  or  furnaces, 
and  are  ventilated  in  summer  by  fans  run  by  gas  motors.  In 
the  basement  are  large  rooms  for  Sloyd  work,  a  dining  room 
for  the  pupils,  and  the  school  kitchen.  On  the  ground  floor 
are  shower-baths  with  dressing  rooms  adjoining.     The  gym- 


1 — n 

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SECOND   FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.     52.       SCHOOL    IN    THE    ST.     HANSGADE,    COPENHAGEN. 


62 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.    53.        girls'     school 
IN      THE       LARSLEJS- 
TRAEDE,     COPENHAGEN. 


nasium  is  in  a  separate  building.    The 
privies  are  in  separate  buildings. 

Fig.  52  gives  the  second-story  plan 
of  a  school  in  the  St.  Hansgade.  This 
building  is  without  wardrobes,  which 
mark  a  stage  in  the  development  of  the 
type  which  now  most  generally  obtains 
in  this  city.  There  are  seventeen  class 
rooms,  and  in  addition  two  class  rooms 
in  the  attic  lighted  by  a  skylight.  In 
the  basement  there  is  a  dining  room 
and  the  kitchens  of  the  assistant  master  and  janitor,  which  are 
connected  by  staircases  with  the  respective  dwellings.  The 
dwelling  of  the  master  occupies  the  whole  middle  part  of  the 
ground  floor  between  the  two  staircases  and  the  entrances. 
On  the  same  floor  is  a  class  room  for  each  division.  On  the 
next  floor,  on  the  boys'  side,  are  four  class  rooms  and  a 
teacher's  room ;  on  the  girls'  side,  three  class  rooms,  a 
teacher's  room,  and  office;  the  latter  is  connected  with  the 
boys'  division  by  a  small  corridor  running  along  the  middle 
wall.  On  the  third  floor  there  are,  in  each  division,  four 
class  rooms  and  one  room  for  collections.  The  attic  has,  for 
each  division,  one  large  class  room  with  skylight,  two  cabi- 
nets, and  attic  rooms. 

Another  school  also  without  ward- 
robes adjoining  is  that  for  girls  in 
Larslejstraede,  represented  in*  Fig. 
53.  It  has  four  stories  with  twelve 
class  rooms,  two  of  which  are  on  the 
ground  floor,  two  in  the  next  story, 
and  four  in  each  of  the  other  two 
stories.  In  the  basement  are  a  dining 
room,  a  scullery  for  the  janitor;  on 
the  ground  floor  are  the  dwelling  of  girls'  school  in  the 
the  janitor,  one  room  for  the  women  larslejstraede,     co- 

teachers;  on  the  floor   above,  on  the         penhagen. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


63 


one  side,  are  the  janitor's    quarters,  and    on    the   other,  two 
class  rooms. 

The  plan  of  the  public  school  in  the  Jagtvejen,  Copenhagen, 
(Fig.  54),  except  for  the  wardrobes  adjoining  the  class  rooms, 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  school  in  St.  Hansgade  above  de- 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     54.       SCHOOL    IN     THE   JAGTVEJEN,    COPENHAGEN. 

scribed.     The  building  has  nineteen  class  rooms,  one  on  the 
ground  floor  and  six  in  each  of  the  other  stories. 

The  school  in  the  Oehlenschlaegergade,  in  the  same  city 
(Fig.  55),  is  exceptional  to  the  general  Copenhagen  plan,  the 
staircases  being  built  in  an  inner  court  covered  with  glass. 
This  was  the  first  Copenhagen  school  to  have  wardrobes 
adjoining  each  class  room.  The  building  has  four  full  stories 
and  an  attic,  and  contains  nineteen  class  rooms.  In  the  base- 
ment, besides  the  furnace  and  coal  room,  there  are  the  dining 
room,  the  wash  kitchen,  a  cellar  for  the  master,  a  servant's 
room,  a  kitchen  for  the  assistant  schoolmistress  and  the  janitor 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    55.       SCHOOL    IN    THE    OEHLENSCHI.AEGERGADK,    COPENHAGEN. 


64 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


whose  dwellings  are  on  the  ground  floor.  On  the  ground  floor 
there  are,  besides  two  class  rooms,  the  master's  ofiice,  a  cabi- 
net, a  room  for  the  men  teachers  and  one  for  the  women 
teachers,  and  an  ante-chamber  and  water-closets.  The  second 
and  third  floors  have  six  class  rooms  with  wardrobes.  On  the 
fourth  floor  are  three  class  rooms  and  the  dwelling  of  the 
master;  in  the  attic  are  two  more  class  rooms. 


FIRST  FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.    56.       SCHOOL    AT    WIBORG,    FINLAND. 

The  school  in  Wiborg,  Finland  (Fig.  56),  has  fourteen 
class  rooms,  twelve  of  which  are  about  26^  ft.  wide  and 
30  ft.  long,  and  two  are  about  28  ft.  wide  and  32  ft.  long. 
On  the  ground  floor  there  are  two  large  Sloyd  rooms,  —  one 
for  the  teaching  of  woodworking,  the  other  for  girls'  needle- 
work,—  and  a  wash  kitchen  with  an  ironing  room.     Above 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.  65 

the  manual  training  section  is  the  gymnasium,  which  is  also 
used  for  social  entertainments;  the  apparatus  is  arranged  so 
that  it  can  readily  be  removed  at  such  times.  The  wood- 
working room  holds  twenty  pupils;  it  has  joiner's  benches  and 
two  turning-lathes.  The  room  for  needlework  has  six  long 
and  one  short  working  tables,  with  common  chairs,  six  sewing 


SCHOOL    AT    WIBORG,    FINLAND, 

machines,  eight  looms,  and  spinning  wheels;  and  in  another 
building  are  kept  the  utensils  for  washing,  mangling,  and 
ironing. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  Scandinavian  schools,  while  show- 
ing many  interesting  features,  do  not  present,  except  in  ex- 
ceptional cases,  as  highly  developed  or  as  architectural  plans 
as  those  of  the  Teutonic  countries  or  those  of  Switzerland; 
but  the  reader  will  recognize  that  they  are,  on  the  whole,  not 
inferior  in  these  respects  to  the  schools  of  England  and  of  the 
United  States. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ENGLISH    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 

The  first  move  towards  public  elementary  education  in 
England  was  that  of  Joseph  Lancaster,  who,  in  1801,  as- 
sembled children  from  the  poor  districts  of  London  and  taught 
them  reading,  writing,  and  ciphering.  The  work  of  Lancaster 
was  carried  on  by  the  Royal  Lancastrian  Society,  and  the 
church  also  took  up  the  matter  of  the  education  of  the  people, 
but  it  was  not  until  1833  that  the  first  Parliamentary  grant  for 
the  maintenance  of  elementary  education  was  made.  In  1861, 
a  system  of  payment  to  the  schools  based  on  results  of  the  ex- 
aminations of  the  individual  pupils  was  established  by  Parlia- 
ment, and  has  but  lately  been  abolished  in  connection  with 
elementary  education.  This  system  is  still  followed  in  the 
award  of  government  grants  to  the  secondary  schools. 

The  local  school  board  system  was  established  in  1870. 
These  boards  have  charge  of  elementary  education  which  is 
conducted  in  the  "  Board  Schools." 

The  prototype  of  the  English  school  is  that  of  the  ancient 
grammar  school,  which  consisted  ordinarily  of  a  large  hall 
in  which  were  seated  pupils  of  all  ages,  and  where  instruction 
was  given  under  a  master  who  was  aided,  where  the  number 
was  considerable,  by  junior  teachers  and  by  pupil  teachers, 
and  where  the  various  classes  were  reciting  at  the  same  time 
upon  different  subjects.  These  halls  were  known  as  "  school- 
rooms." As  the  schools  were  further  developed,  small  class 
rooms  for  occasional  use  were  added. 

The  next  development  of  the  English  school  was  in  group- 
ing several  rooms,  each  accommodating  two  or  more  classes, 
about  the  large  schoolrooms.  The  number  of  class  and  reci- 
tation rooms  was  also  gradually  increased.  Until  recently,  the 
assembly  hall  was  also  utilized  for  teaching  classes,  and  was 
in  many  cases  fitted  with  "double  banks  "of  seats.     The  prin- 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


67 


cipal  function  of  the  assembly  hall,  which  is  called  in  Eng- 
land the  "  Central  Hall"  or  the  "  Hall,"  is  a  place  of  gathering 
of  the  pupils,  from  whence,  after  prayers,  they  file  to  the  coat 
room,  and  thence  to  their  respective  schoolrooms. 


FIG.  57.   BOARD  SCHOOL  ON  JOHNSON  STREET,  STEPNEY,  LONDON. 

The  hall  is  also  used  for  singing,  for  drill,  and  for  calis- 
thenic  exercises;  sometimes  the  hall  is  equipped  with  movable 
apparatus  and  used  as  a  gymnasium,  and  here  examinations 
and  prize  distributions,  etc.,  take  place.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation permits  the  seating  of  one  class  (Fig.  57),  and,  under 
special  circumstances,  two  classes,  in  the  hall,  but  this  rarely 


SCHOOL    AT    PAISLEY,    ENGLAND. 


68 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


now  occurs  except  in  case  of  emergency,  as  the  classes  are 
disturbed  by  the  constant  movement  through  it  to  the  other 
rooms,  and  as  the  large  area  (being  not  less  than  1,200  sq.  ft. 
and  25  to  30  ft.  in  height)  renders  it  draughty  and  imposes 
a  strain  upon  the  voices  of  teachers  and  pupils.  In  some 
halls  of  mixed  schools  seatings  are  provided  for  the  girls, 
while  the  boys  stand  during  assembly. 

In  the  infants'  schools  the  hall  is  a  practically  large  school- 
room with  a  liberal  floor  space  for  assembling,  drill,  etc.  The 
children  are  seated  on  a  "  bank,"  stepped  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying section   (Fig.  58),  arranged  on  one   side  of  the 


FIG.     58.       SECTION    OF    A    TYPICAL    "BANK"    IN    AN    INFANTS*    SCHOOL. 

room.  The  "  double  bank,"  by  which  the  seatings  were  on 
both  sides  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  teachers  in  the  aisles, 
has  become  well-nigh  obsolete. 

The  English  have  been  very  tenacious  of  the  type  of  the 
ancient  single-room  building,  and  even  in  those  now  built, 
where  the  tendency  is  towards  the  separate  class  system, 
movable  partitions,  or  other  similar  expedients,  are  often  used 
in  order  that  the  class  rooms  may  be  thrown  together  as  an  ex- 
tension of  the  hall  (Figs.  59  and  60).  In  many  cases  the 
partitions  are  glazed  above  the  top  of  dado  so  that  the  floor  is 
practically  one  large  room  divided  by  screens  which  are  by 
no  means  impervious  to  sound. 

The  clothing  of  pupils  is  usually  stored  in  large  cloakrooms 
which  are  sometimes  in  the  basement,  but  more  often  adjoin- 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.  69 

ing  the  hall.  Very  rarely  are  special  clothing  enclosures  pro- 
vided for  each  class,  adjoining  the  class  rooms.  One  of  the 
few  cases  of  such  an  arrangement  is   in  the   Higher  Board 


FIG.     59.       SCHOOL   AT    PAISLEY,    ENGLAND. 

School,  Halifax;  these  are  practically  alcoves  off  the  corridor, 
the  doors  having  panels  of  wire  grillage.  The  large  general 
cloakrooms  are  ill  adapted  for  the  orderly  storage  of  the  pupils' 
clothing,  and  there  is  much  loss   of  time  entailed  by  the  filing 


FIG.  60.   BOARD  SCHOOL,  NEW  NORTH  STREET,  LONDON. 

of  so  many  classes  through  the  common  cloakroom.  In  large 
schools,  to  avoid  inevitable  confusion,  it  has  been  found  neces- 
sary to  heap  the  clothing  of  each  class  on  the  floor  of  the  cloak- 


70  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

room.  The  monitors  take  the  clothing  to  each  class  room, 
where  it  is  distributed  when  the  pupils  are  about  to  leave  the 
building. 

In  the  London  Board  Schools  the  interior  walls  have 
enameled  brick  dadoes,  with  the  walls  above  of  common 
brick  painted;  sometimes  the  painted  common  brick  is  car- 
ried the  whole  height.  In  the  schools  of  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, as  in  Manchester  and  Halifax,  for  instance,  hard  cement 
or  glazed  brick  is  used  for  the  dadoes,  and  the  wall  above  is 
smoothly  plastered  to  avoid  dust  lodgment.  The  evenness  of 
plastering  is  everywhere  an  important  consideration,  and  in 
ihe  large  cities  of  England,  with  their  sooty  atmosphere,  it  is 
especially  to  be  regarded.  A  beveled  wooden  base-board  is 
used  with  the  glazed  brick  dadoes.  For  reasons  of  cleanli- 
ness, dadoes  of  wood  have  been  discarded  in  the  later  schools. 

With  the  tendency  towards  the  adoption  of  the  separate 
class  system  has  come  a  much  wider  use  of  exclusively  left- 
hand  lighting  for  the  class  rooms.  The  rules  of  the  Board  of 
Education  say:  "Every  part  and  corner  of  a  school  should 
be  fully  lighted.  The  light  should,  as  far  as  possible,  and  es- 
pecially in  class  rooms,  be  admitted  from  the  left  side  of  the 
scholars.  All  other  windows  in  class  rooms  should  be  re- 
garded as  supplementary,  or  for  summer  ventilation.  Where 
left  light  is  impossible,  right  light  is  next  best.  Windows  full 
in  the  eye  of  teachers  or  scholars  are  not  approved.  In  rooms 
14  ft.  high  any  space  beyond  24  ft.  from  the  window  wall  is 
insufficiently  lighted." 

Mr.  Bailey,  the  architect  of  the  London  School  Board,  pre- 
fers an  eastern  exposure  for  class  rooms.  He  says:  "I  never 
build  them  to  the  cheerless  north  if  I  can  avoid  it,  and  the 
need  of  lowering  the  blinds  on  the  sunny  side  seriously  inter- 
feres with  the  lighting.  The  class  rooms  should  be  14  or  15 
ft.  clear  height.  They  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  desks 
receive  their  daylight  from  the  left,  and  the  furthest  desks 
should  not  be  more  than  20  ft.  from  the  windows.  Beyond 
that  there  should  be  side  lighting,  preferably  at  the  back." 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.  7 1 

It  is  advised  by  the  Board  of  Education  that  window-sills 
should  be  4  ft.  above  the  floor,  but  in  London  Board  Schools 
the  height  of  3^  ft.  is  adopted. 

Through  the  very  general  use  of  casement  sash  in  English 
schools  a  more  considerable  portion  of  the  window  openings 
is  obstructed  by  the  woodwork  than  would  be  the  case  if 
hung  sash  without  transoms  were  used. 

The  London  School  Board  allow  in  a  class  room  140  cu.  ft. 
of  air  for  each  child.  In  the  United  States,  in  class  rooms  of 
the  primary  grade,  of  the  customary  height  of  12  ft.,  164  cu.  ft. 
for  each  child  is  allowed,  and  the  allowance  in  the  average 
grammar  schools  in  the  latter  country  is  over  200  cu.  ft.  to 
each  pupil. 

The  school  and  class  room  floors  are  usually  stepped  with 
the  three  back  rows  of  desks.  To  avoid  the  danger  of  trip- 
ping and  the  difficulty  of  keeping  clean  so  many  angles,  the 
floors  in  some  of  the  schools  recently  constructed  are  built 
upon  a  gradent.  The  level  floor  with  raised  platform  for 
teacher,  customary  elsewhere  than  in  Great  Britain,  is  evi- 
dently the  better  arrangement. 

In  English  schools  the  floors  are  of  fire-proof  construction, 
and  the  staircases  are  usually  built  of  stone  or  "artificial 
stone." 

Blackboards  are  generally  provided  only  for  the  teachers' 
and  seldom  for  the  pupils'  use,  but  recently  a  few  class  rooms 
in  Halifax  have  been  so  equipped  after  the  manner  customary 
in  the  United  States. 

The  upper  flooring  of  coarse  wooden  marquetry  laid  herring- 
bone, frequently  used  in  English  schools,  is  as  undesirable  a 
type  of  floor  as  can  be  found.  In  England,  as  in  America, 
square-edged  flooring  about  3  ins,  wide  gives  the  best  service, 
and  red  Norway  pine  is  the  material  customarily  used  for 
this  purpose. 

The  school  is,  where  possible,  set  back  from  the  street,  and 
with  the  school  yard  on  the  street  side.  The  3'ard  is  given  as 
sunny  exposure  as  possible,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  low  brick 


72 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


wall  and  capped  with  an  "  unclimbable "  iron  fence.  The 
Board  of  Education  advise  that  in  school  premises  "  the 
minimum  unbuilt-on  or  open  space  of  30  sq.  ft.  should  be  pre- 
served." The  playgrounds  of  boys  and  girls  are  separate.  It 
is  required  that  a  portion  of  the  playground  should  be  covered, 
and  this  space  is  often  gained  by  utilizing  for  the  purpose 
nearly  all  the  ground  floor  of  the  building.  This  method  of 
gaining  covered  playground  makes  the  warming  of  the  build- 
ing difficult. 

Thef  interior  warmed  playrooms  which  are  found  in  Ameri- 
can schools  .and  the  warmed  covered  court  of  the  French 
schools  are  unknown  in  England. 


A  TYPICAL  ENGLISH  SCHOOL  ON  A  LARGE  LOT. 

The  quarters  for  the  janitor  are  generally  in  a  separate 
house  on  the  premises.  In  the  country,  and  sometimes  in  the 
larger  towns,  a  house  or  apartments  within  the  school  pre- 
cincts, or  within  the  building,  are  provided  for  the  master, 
and  in  some  cases  there  are  such  accommodations  tor  other 
teachers. 

Public  elementary  schools  are  divided  into  the  following 
departments:  "Boys'  schools,  girls'  schools,  senior  mixed 
schools,  junior  mixed  schools,  infants'  schools."  Where  sites 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS. 


73 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN 


FIG.    6l. 


BIRCHFIELD    ROAD    BOARD    SCHOOL,    LIVERPOOL. 

are  sufficiently  large  and  level,  schools  are  built,  either  of 
one  story  only,  or  with  but  few  class  rooms  above  the  first 
floor.     As  a  rule,  the  class  rooms  for  the  older  pupils  are 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     62.       BIRCHFIELD    ROAD    BOARD    SCHOOL,     LIVERPOOL. 


74 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


grouped  round  a  hall,  with  an  infants'  department  as  a  separate 
building. 

In  a  two-stor}'^  building  the  boys  and  girls  are  assigned  each 
to  a  floor  with  a  separate  infants'  school  or  the  class  and  school 
rooms  entirely  enclose  the  hall,  as  in  the  Birchfield  Road 
Board  School,  Liverpool  (Figs.  61,62, 6^,  and  64).  This  build- 
ing accommodates  seventeen  hundred:  i.e.,  five  hundred  and 
sixty  infants  and  eleven  hundred  and  forty  boys  and  girls.    The 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     63.        BIRCHFIELD    ROAD    BOARD    SCHOOL,     LIVERPOOL. 


infants'  rooms  and  the  cloakrooms  are  placed  upon  the  first 
floor;  the  boys'  and  girls' rooms  and  the  laboratories,  etc.,  are 
on  the  second  floor.  The  hall  is  lighted  by  a  skylight,  glazed 
with  wire  glass.  This  type  is  used  only  where  the  site  is  incon- 
venient for  a  one-story  construction.  Sometimes  the  hall  is 
placed  on  the  third  floor,  class  rooms  on  the  second,  and  the 
covered  playgrounds   and   the   various   ofBces   on  the  ground 


ELEMENTARY    SCH 


75 


J 


i3«T — 


MEZZANINE    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG      64.       BIRCHFIELD    ROAD    BOARD    SCHOOL,    LIVERPOOL. 

floor.  In  London,  where  the  sites  are  limited  by  the  high  cost 
of  land,  three-story  buildings  are  generally  built.  The  infants 
are  on  the  ground  floor,  on  a  level  with  their  playgrounds, 
the  girls  on  the  second  floor,  the  boys  above,  each  department 
having  its  own  hall.  Cobbold  Road  School,  Chelsea,  London 
(Fig.  65),  illustrates  a  building  of  this  type.     The  maximum 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     65.       COBBOLD   ROAD    SCHOOL,    CHELSEA,    LONDON. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.  77 

number  of  pupils  in  a  London  Board  school,  in  a  group  such 
as  is  here  described,  is  fifteen  hundred  and  fort3^-eight,  there 
being  five  hundred  and  sixteen  in  each  of  the  three  depart- 
ments. If  further  accommodations  are  required  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, it  is  met  by  building  separate  buildings  for  senior 
mixed  or  junior  inixed  departments,  as  may  best  suit  the  needs 
of  the  case.  The  hall  of  a  school  of  this  type  is  54  by  30  ft. 
There  are  ten  class  rooms,  one  for  forty,  two  for  forty-eight  or 
fifty,  and  the  remainder  for  fifty-six  or  sixty  pupils.  The  Lon- 
don School  Board  has  given  up  sliding  partitions  between  the 
class  rooms;  this  appears  to  be  the  tendency  elsewhere,  as  is 
also  the  adoption  of  the  separate  graded  class  system  in 
elementar}' schools;  consequently,  the  plans  of  English  schools, 
except  in  the  location  of  the  hall  on  the  first  floor  and  in  the 
arrangement  of  wardrobes,  are  tending  to  be  similar  to  the 
types  which  have  been  developed  in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  public  school  system  of  the  United  States  originated 
in  Massachusetts  in  1647,  when,  by  act  of  the  General  Court, 
common  and  "grammar"  schools  were  established.  The 
latter  schools  were  primarily  preparatory  for  Harvard  College. 

It  was  at  this  early  date  that  in  Massachusetts  the  principle 
was  recognized  that  the  welfare  of  the  State  required  that  chil- 
dren should  be  educated,  and  that  the  expense  of  this  edu- 
cation should  be  borne  by  taxation.  The  system  of  district 
schools  established  in  Massachusetts  in  1789,  by  which  each 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 


BASEMENT    PLAN. 

FIG.    66.       WILLIAMS    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 

78 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


79 


town  was  divided  into  several  districts,  was  gradually  sup- 
planted by  the  town  school  system,  the  district  system  being 
abolished  by  law  in  1882. 

With  the  adoption  of  the  town  system  came  gradually  the 
introduction  of  the  large  elementary  schools,  organized  upon 
the  separate  graded  class  system,  which  had  its  origin  in  Ger- 
many. The  district  schools  were  conducted  substantially  on 
the  English  system,  and  the  tenacity  which  this  tradition  had 


WILLIAMS    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 
Edmund  M.  Wheelwright,  City  Architect. 

is  shown  by  the  frequent  planning  twenty  years  ago  of  build- 
ings with  large  schoolrooms,  divided  by  sliding  or  otherwise 
movable  partitions  into  class  rooms,  an  arrangement  even 
now  used  in  the  lately  constructed  elementary  schools  in 
New  York  City.  We  have  seen  that  this  arrangement  is 
quite  common  in  English  schools,  where  the  change  from 
what  may  be  called  the  "  schoolroom "  system  to  the  sepa- 


8o 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


8l 


rate    class  system  has  been  introduced  more,   slowly  than  in 
the  United  States. 

In  most  of  the  United  States,  as  in  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries, the  elementary  schools  are  in  two  grades:  first,  the 
primary,  with  sometimes  a  kindergarten  department;  and 
second,  the  grammar  schools,  which  have  a  similar  scope  to 
the  English  Board  Schools  and  to  the  German  Gemeinde- 
schule.  In  Massachusetts  separate  schools  are  often  provided 
for   the   primary  and  grammar  grades;  the  writer  finds  no  in- 


EUSTIS   PRIMARY    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 
Edmund  M.  Wheelwright,  City  Architect. 

Stance  in  other  States  where  such  provision  is  made  for  the 
two  grades.  The  primary  grade  '  with  the  kindergarten  is 
similar  to  the  "infant  class"  of  the  English  system,  but  except 
in  the  largest  American  cities,  and  then  only  in  the  schools  of 
latest  construction,  is  special  provision  in  plan  made  for  the 
kindergarten  department. 

The  advantage  of  separate  schools  for  the  two  divisions  of 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  elementary  grade  is  that  numerous  small  schools  are  placed 
within  easy  walking  distance  for  the  younger  pupils,  while  the 
older  pupils  of"  the  grammar  grade  are  drawn  from  a  wider 
area.  The  expense  of  providing  separate  schools  under  this 
system  is  obviously  greater  than  in  the  case  where  large  ele- 
mentary schools,  in  which  provision  is  made  for  both  primary 
and  grammar  grades,  are  built  to  serve  large  areas. 


ANDREWS    PRIMARY    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 
Edmund  M.  Wheelwright,  City  Architect. 

The  usual  size  of  a  primary  class  room  is  24  by  32  ft.,  and  of 
a  grammar  class  room  is  28  by  32  ft.,  each  designed  to  accom- 
modate fifty-six  pupils.  The  corner  rooms  are  usually  lighted 
from  two  sides,  four  windows  on  the  long,  and  three  on  the 
short  side.     The  pupils'  clothing  is  never  hung  in  the  class 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


83 


rooms,  and  in  the  best  schools  separate  wardrobes  with  out- 
side light,  as  described  in  Chapter  I.,  are  provided. 

The  primary/  schools  are  always,  and  the  grammar  schools 
are  often  "  mixed." 

Assembly  halls  are  seldom  found  in  primary  schools,  but 
generally  in  schools  of  this  grade  there  are  class  rooms  only 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 


"r_K_rvr_J 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     68.        SEWALL    PRIMARY    SCHOOL,     BROOKLINE,     MASS. 
Cabot,  Everett  &  Mead,  Architects. 

and  a  teacher's  room.  There  is  no  master's  office  in  primary 
schools,  as  the  head  of  a  primary  school  is  the  master  of  the 
grammar  school  of  the  school  district. 

In  illustration  of  the  primary  schools  of  Boston,  Mass.,  there 
are  here  presented  the  basement  and  first-floor  plans  of  the 
Williams  (Fig.  66),  a  four-room  school;  the  Eustis  (Fig.  67), 
a  six-room  school.  The  Andrews,  a  school  of  same  plan  as  the 
Eustis,  is  three  stories  in  height  and  has  nine  class  rooms.     All 


84 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


8s 


these  schools  have  separate  wardrobes,  and  the  corner  rooms 
have  the  windows  arranged  according  to  the  usual  American 
method.  The  Andrews  School  has  floors  of  steel  beam 
and  terra-cotta  lumber  construction.  Larger  primary 
schools  are  sometimes  built  in  Boston,  but  they  offer  little 
essential  difference  in  features  or  plan  types  from  those 
shown  above. 

In  the  Sewall  School,  Brookline,  Mass.  (Fig.  68),  is  shown 
a  nine-room  building  without  separate  enclosures  for  clothing, 


GRAMMAR    SCHOOL,    HOPEDALE,    MASS. 
Walker  &  Kimball,  Architects. 

and  with  toilet  rooms  on  each  story,  placed  in  a  "  tower,"  a 
disposition  of  plan  often  found  in  hospitals.  It  will  be  noted 
also  that  in  the  corner  rooms  there  is  no  window  in  the 
middle  of  the  wall  opposite  the  teacher's  desk.  The  class 
rooms  are  34  ft.  6  ins.  in  length,  being  2  ft.  6  ins.  in  excess  in 
this  dimension  of  that  approved  by  the  best  authorities  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

The  features  of  the  higher  elementary  or,  as  they  are  called, 
grammar  schools  of  the  United  States  are  not  as  constant  as 


86 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN.  SECOND   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     70.        ROGER    LUDLOW    GRAMMAR    SCHOOL,     WINDSOR,    CONN. 

in  schools  of  like  grade  in  Teutonic  countries.  Some  are  pro- 
vided with  libraries  and  some  with  laboratories,  and  in  some 
there  are  neither.  The  school  garden,  a  frequent  adjunct  of 
European  schools,  has  not  yet  been  adopted  in  America. 
Many  schools  of  recent  construction  have  manual  training 
schools,  in  this  respect  following  the  suggestion  given  by  the 
Scandinavian  elementary  schools,  but  such  instruction  is  gen- 
erally given  outside  the  school  buildings  at  "  centers."  Some 
few  recently  constructed  schools  have  cooking  schoolrooms, 
and  some  have  rooms  assigned  especially  for  instruction  in  sew- 


ROGER    LUDLOW    GRAMMAR    SCHOOL,     WINUSOK,     CONN. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


87 


SECOND   FLOOR   P|l,AN. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     71.        WINTHROP     GRAMMAR    SCHOOL,     NEW    LONDON,     CONN. 


88 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ing.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Superintendent  Seaver  of  the  Boston, 
Mass.,  schools,  in  his  report  for  1898,  recommends  that  "all 
grammar  schools  should  have  a  room  for  woodworking,  one 
for  cooking,  and  one  for  sewing,  so  that  pupils  may  not  be 
required  to  go,  as  at  present,  to  centers  where  the  classes 
in  these  subjects  are  instructed." 

Most  of  the  plans  here  shown  have  assembly  halls,  and  it  is 
unusual  that  a  large  school  of  the  grammar  grade  is  unpro- 
vided with  such  a  room;  or,  if  not  so  provided,  such  buildings 
are  arranged  so  that  two  or  more  class  rooms  may  be  thrown 
together  by  such  folding  or  sliding  doors  or  rolling  partitions. 


WINTHROP    GRAMMAR    SCHOOL,    NEW    LONDON,  CONN. 

The  grammar  school,  at  Hopedale,  Mass.  (Fig.  69),  has  on 
the  first  floor  three  class  rooms  and  the  teacher's  room,  on  the 
second  floor  the  same  arrangement,  except  that  the  master's 
room  has  the  analogous  position  given  the  teachers'  room  on 
the  first  story.  There  is  no  manual  training  room,  and  there 
is  no  provision  except  the  corridor  for  the  hanging  of  the 
pupils'  clothing. 

An  example  of  very  simple  plan  t3'pe  is  the  Roger  Ludlow 
Grammar  School,  at  Windsor,  Conn.   (Fig.   70).     The  Win- 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


89 


throp  School,  at  New  London  (Fig.  71),  in  the  same  State, 
shows  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  screens  guarding  the 
clothing,  which  is  hung  in  the  corridors. 

In  the  Pierce  School,  Brookline,  Mass.  (Fig.  72),  the  mas- 
ter's and  teachers'  rooms  and  six  class  rooms  are  on  the  first 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIRST   FLOOR' PLAN. 

FIG.     72.       PIERCE   SCHOOL,    BROOKLINE,    MASS. 

floor.  The  second  floor  duplicates  the  first,  except  there  is  a 
sewing  room  in  place  of  the  master's  and  teachers'  rooms.  On 
the  third  floor  is  the  assembly  hall,  a  cooking  school,  and  a 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


91 


laboratory;  in  the  basement  there  is  a  manual  training  room. 
The  clothing  is  not  hung  in  separate  enclosures. 

Peirce  School,  Newton,  Mass.  (Fig.  73),  has,  on  the  first 
floor,  six  class  rooms,  a  recitation  room,  a  reception  room,  and 
a  women  teachers'  room;  on  the  second  floor  there  are  also  six 
class  rooms,  the  master's  room  which  adjoins  the  library  and 


MAIN    ENTRANCE,    PEIRCE    SCHOOL,    NEWTON,    MASS. 
Stickney  &  Austin,  Architects. 

a  recitation  room.  The  boys'  and  girls'  clothing  is  hung  sep- 
arately; in  four  instances  wardrobes  with  outer  light  are  pro- 
vided; the  rest  are  hung  in  the  corridors.  The  third  story 
contains  only  the  assembly  hall  with  its  anterooms.     In  the 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


93 


94 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


basement  is  a  manual  training  room,  the  boiler  room,  etc. 
The  corner  class  rooms  have  but  three  windows  in  the  long 
side. 

Another  Newton  school  of  similar  arrangement  to  that  of 
the  Peirce,  but  varying  in  the  disposition  of  the  entrances  and 
staircases,  is  the  Bigelow  School  (Fig.  74). 

The  Brooks  School,  at  Medford,  Mass.  (Fig.  75),  shows  a 
method  of  clothing  disposal  like  that  ot  the  English  schools. 
The  clothing  is  shut  off  from  the  corridors,  but  the  assistance 
to  discipline  afforded  by  the  arrangement  of  a  wardrobe  ad- 


BIGELOW    SCHOOL,     NEWTON,     MASS. 
Hartwell,  Richardson  &  Driver,  Architects. 

joining  each  class  room  is  lacking.     This  is  a  twelve-room 
building,  with  assembly  hall  in  roof 

On  the  first  floor  of  the  Eugene  Field  School,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.  (Fig.  76),  there  are  six  class  rooms,  a  large  kindergarten 
room  (30  by  51  ft.),  a  master's  room,  a  room  for  janitor,  with 
a  storeroom  adjoining;  on  the  second  and  third  floors  are 
seven  class  rooms,  a  teachers'  room,  and  janitor  and  store- 
room, as  on  the  first  floor.  The  wardrobes  give  from  the  class 
rooms  only  and  not  from  the  corridor  and  class  room,  as  is 
preferable,  and  some  of  the  wardrobes  have  no  outer  light. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


95 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     75.       BROOKS    SCHOOL,    MEDFORD,    MASS. 

The  school  buildings  of  St.  Louis  are  further  illustrated  by 
the  Sherman  (Fig.  77)  and  the  Eliot  schools  (Fig.  78).  The 
schools  of  this  city  are  now  built  wholly  of  incombustible 
materials. 


BROOKS   SCHOOL,    MEDFORD,    MASS. 
Wales  &  Holt,  Architects. 


96 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


97 


The  Auburndale  School,  Toledo,  Ohio  (Fig.  79),  is  a 
typical  example  of  the  later  buildings  of  the  grammar  grade 
in  that  city.  In  this  city  the  length  of  the  class  rooms,  from 
34  to  37  ft.,  is  greater  than  that  generally  considered  desirable 
for  ready  control  by  eye  and  voice;  the  customary  length  of 
class  rooms  being,  in  the  United   States,  32  ft.,   and  on  the 


L      iliti 

ROOM    Baa 


Ah   — 


SECOND   AND   THIRD   FLOOR    PLANS. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     77.        SHERMAN    SCHOOL,     ST.     LOUIS,     MO. 

W.  B.  Ittner,  Commissioner  of  Public  Buildings. 

continent  of  Europe,  from  30  to  32  ft.  In  the  Toledo  schools, 
the  class  rooms  are  25  to  26  ft.  wide  and  13  ft.  high;  they 
have  separate  wardrobes,  generally  with  outer  light,  adjoining 
each  class  room.     These  wardrobes  are  not  accessible  from 


98 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  corridor  as  well  as  from  the  room,  but  have  two  doors, 
which  permit  the  filing  of  the  pupils  through  the  room  and 
the  wardrobe.  Another  example  from  this  city  is  the 
Lagrange  School  (Fig.  80).     In  this  building  the  class  rooms 


SECOND    KLOOU    PLAN. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
KK;.     78.        ELIOT    SCHOOL,    ST.    LOUIS,     MO. 

have  on  the  long  side  but  three  windows.  The  exterior  onl}' 
can  be  given  of  the  Waite  School,  Toledo.  This  building 
has  no  windows  in  the  wall  opposite  the  teacher's  desk.     The 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


99 


ELIOT    SCHOOL,    ST.     LOUIS,    MO. 

W.  B.  Ittner,  Commissioner  of  Public  Buildings. 


r   ]  1 

m 

y       v: 

T-.- 

1 

j 

FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    79.       AUBURNDALE    SCHOOL,    TOLEDO,    OHIO. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


lOI 


illustration  of  a  cooking  class  in  a  Toledo  school  (Fig.  8i) 
may  be  with  interest  compared  with  a  like  class  in  a  Nor- 
wegian school,  illustrated  on  page  49.  The  George  Dewey 
School,  Chicago,  111.  (Fig.  82),  has  the  same  arrangement  of 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     80.        LAGRANGE    SCHOOL,     TOLEDO,     OHIO. 

wardrobes  and  windows  in  corner  class  rooms  as  the  Lagrange 
School. 

The  New  Brown  School,   Hartford,  Conn.    (Fig.  83),  has, 
in  the  basement,  a  manual  training  room  and  a  laboratory;  on 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


103 


the  first  floor  five  class  rooms,  the  master's  room,  and  a  library; 
six  class  rooms  on  the  second  floor;  and  on  the  third  floor  the 
assembly  hall,  a  class  room,  and  a  cooking  school.  None  of 
the  corner  rooms  have  four  windows  in  the  long  side.  All 
the  wardrobes  have  outer  light. 

In  the  Robert  Gould  Shaw  School,  Boston,  Mass.  (Fig.  84), 
there  are,  on  the  first  story,  five  class  rooms.  On  the  second 
story  are  three  class  rooms,  an  assembly  hall,  the  master's  and 


WAITE    SCHOOL,     TOLKDO,    OHIO. 
Wachter,  Hudson  &  Co.,  Architects. 

the  teachers'  rooms.  In  the  basement  are  manual  training 
rooms,  playrooms,  boiler  room,  etc.  As  in  most  of  the 
Boston  schools,  built  in  the  past  twenty-five  years,  each 
class  room  has  a  separate  wardrobe  provided  with  outer 
light  and  accessible  from  the  corridor  as  well  as  from  the 
class  rooms. 

Christopher  Gibson  School,  Boston  (Fig.  85),  has,  on  the 
first  story,  fiv^e  class  rooms,  a  library,  reception  room,  and  a 
master's    room.     On    the    second    story   there    are   five    class 


I04 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


rooms,  the  assembly  hall,  and  the  teachers'  room.  The 
school  is  built  upon  a  hillside,  and  the  basement  at  the  rear  is 
clear  of  the  ground  and  is  there  utilized  for  manual  training 
rooms. 

In  the  Gilbert  Stuart  School,  Boston  (Fig.  86),  there  are,  on 
the  first  floor,  five  class  rooms  and  the  master's  and  teachers' 
rooms;  on  the  second  floor  again  five  class  rooms  and  a  large 
recitation  room;  on  the  third  floor  an  assembly  hall  and  four 
class  rooms.     There  is  no  especially  assigned  manual  training 


A    COOKING    CLASS    IN    A    TOLEDO,    OHIO,    SCHOOL. 


room.  The  thin  partitions  indicated  upon  the  plans  are  2  ins. 
thick,  and  are  constructed  of  metal  lathing  set  on  light  angle 
irons,  which  are  plastered  with  cement. 

The  Bowdoin  School,  Boston  (Fig.  87),  is  built  on  a  sharply 
sloping  side  of  Beacon  Hill,  and  two  class  rooms  are  therefore 
placed  in  the  basement  entirely  above  grade.  In  the  sub-base- 
ment are  the  boiler  room,  etc.  Six  class  rooms  are  on  the 
first  floor;  on  the  second  floor  are  four  class  rooms,  a  library, 
and  the  master's  and  teachers'  rooms;  on  the  third  floor  are 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


105 


io6 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


BASEMENT    PLAN.  FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    83.       NEW    BROWN    SCHOOL,    HARTFORD,    CONN. 
William  C.  Brocklesby,  Architect. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


107 


io8 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


four  class  rooms  and  the  assembly  hall.  The  minor  parti- 
tions are  of  metal  lathing  and  cement,  as  in  the  Gilbert  Stuart 
School. 

The  Mayhew  School,  Boston,  Mass.  (Fig.  88),  on  account 
of  the  restricted  area  of  its  site,  which  is  on  a  narrow  street  in 
the  old  part  of  the  city,  has  not  the  feature  of  separate  ward- 
robes which  is  usually  found  in  Boston  schools.  The  class 
rooms  are  lighted  from  the  courtyard. 


ROBERT    GOULD  SHAW    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 
Edmund  M.  Wheelwright,  City  Architect. 

Paul  Revere  School,  Boston  (Fig.  89),  is  also  built  upon  a 
restricted  lot  upon  a  narrow  street  in  the  North  End.  It  has, 
on  the  first  floor,  six  class  rooms;  on  the  second  floor  there  are 
also  six  class  rooms  and  the  master's  and  teachers'  rooms;  on 
the  third  floor  there  are  the  same  number  of  class  rooms,  and 
also  the  convenient  and  usual  feature  of  toilet  rooms  for  boys 
and  for  girls.     This  building'  has  especial  distinction  in  being 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS 


BASEMENT    PLAN. 

FIG.     85.       CHRISTOPHER    GIBSON    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 
Edmund  M.  Wheelwright,  City  Architect. 


no  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  first  elementary  school  in  New  England  which  was  built 
wholly  of  incombustible  materials,  and  also  in  being  the  first, 
in  that  part  of  the  United  States  at  least,  in  which  bathing 
facilities  for  the  pupils  have  been  provided. 

The  conditions  which  must  be  met  in  New  York  are  similar 
to  those  elsewhere  in  large  American  cities,  but  are  more 
strongly  typical.  Land  in  school  neighborhoods  is  often  of 
great  value;  the  density  and  the  great  and  constant  increase 
of  the  population  require  the  construction  of  large  buildings 
upon  limited  sites,  usually  of  a  uniform  depth  of  loo  ft.,  while 
the  building  must  of  necessity  occupy  a  depth  of  62  to  65  ft. 
A  building  built  under  these  conditions  is  illustrated  by  Public 
School,  No.  154  (Fig.  90). 

All  New  York  schools  are  now  of  fire-proof  construction. 
The  building  law  requires  a  thickness  of  bearing  walls  pro- 
portionate to  window  surface,  so  that  it  proves  to  be  more 
economical  to  use  steel  skeleton  frame  than  masonry  construc- 
tion in  schools  when  of  four  stories  or  more  in  height.  Walls 
16  ins.  thick  are  permissible  when  the  steel  construction  is 
used,  but  ^6  ins.  of  thickness  is  required  when  the  construc- 
tion is  of  masonry  only.  The  thinner  wall  is  not  only  less 
expensive,  but  is  an  element  to  be  considered  in  the  securing 
of  floor  surface  and  in  the  lighting  of  the  class  rooms. 

Public  School,  No.  165,  shows  the  typical  arrangement  and 
design  of  all  buildings  of  the  H  type,  a  form  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  where  property  is  expensive  and  the  neighborhood 
disagreeable  or  noisy. 

The  plan  provides  for  a  blank  wall  on  the  party  line,  except- 
ing a  slight  recess  at  the  center  of  the  block,  which  is  seldom 
built  across  by  the  adjoining  owners.  All  noise  and  other 
nuisances  are  thus  cut  off  from  the  sides,  and  the  front  is  set 
back  as  far  from  the  street  as  the  requirements  of  the  plan 
will  permit. 

The  basements  are  used  only  for  the  heating  and  ventilating 
apparatus;  and  as  the  sentiment  in  New  York  is  opposed  to 
basement  playrooms,  the  first  or  ground  floors  are  used  al- 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


Ill 


**3     p; 
00   r 


112 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    88.       MAYHEW    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 


MAY  HEW    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 
John  Lyman  Faxon,  Architect. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS 


ii8 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


FOURTH    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     90.        PUBLIC    SCHOOL    NO.     1 54,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 

most  wholly  for  indoor  playrooms  (Fig.  91).  These  rooms  are 
paved  with  asphalt,  and  wainscoted  with  glazed  brick  5  ft.  6  ins. 
high;  the}^  are  also  used  for  evening  lectures,  for  which  port- 
able seats  are  provided.  Occasionall}-,  a  portion  of  the  ground 
floor  is  assigned  for  a  kindergarten.  The  upper  stories  are 
divided  into  class  rooms,  six  or  eight  of  which  are  arranged  by 
means  of  sliding  doors  for  use  as  an  assembly  room  (Fig.  92). 
The  attic  is  utilized  for  manual  and  ph3sical  training,  cook- 
ing room,  and  gymnasium,  and  here,  also,  are  modeling  and 
sewing  rooms  and  the  librar}-. 


PUBLIC    SCHOOL    NO.     154,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 
C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


119 


PUBLIC    SCHOOL    NO.     165,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 
C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     91.        PUBLIC    SCHOOL    NO.     165,     NEW    YORK    CITY. 


I20 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


II  t1 


n 

<^Mlll 

PLAYROOM,    FIRST    M.ooiv,     I'UISLIC    SCHOOL    NO.     154,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 
C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    92.       PUBLIC    SCHOOL    NO.     165,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


121 


PUBLIC    SCHOOL   NO.     I53,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 
C.  B.  J,  Snyder,  Architect. 

The  height  of  class  rooms  is  14  ft.  3^^  ins.  An  incidental 
advantage  of  this  height  is  that,  while  the  principal  plumbing 
fixtures  are  on  the  first  and  top  floors,  two  tiers  of  toilet  rooms 
are  arranged  in  this  height,  the  upper  tier  being  served  from 
the  staircase  landing;  and  thus  a  convenient  distribution  of 
water-closets,  etc.,  is  gained  throughout  the  building  without 
an  extravao^ant  use  of  floor  area.     This  arrangement  of  toilet 


^^^"^ 

ssssssS 

■^^ 

^ 

ssssszss 

H^h£  ^b^E  I  a^^^i^^^^i^ 

1 

1 

1^^^^^^^^^^^     i    '  v'^K^S 

Q 

^^^B^^^^^^^^^ 

I^^^^^^^^SJ 

\ 

fli 

1^^ 

* 

■fli 

FIG.     93.        ROOK    PLAYGROUND,     PUBLIC     bUHOUL    NU.     I47,     NEW    YORK    CITY. 


122  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

rooms  is  found  in  Cassland  Road  Higher  Grade  School  (Fig. 
122),  and  in  the  Finsbury  Pupil  Teachers'  Centre,  London, 
Eng.  (Figs.  124,  125),  and  also  in  the  English  High  and  Latin 
School,  Boston  (Fig.  126),  and  in  the  Brookline  High  School 
(Fig.  130). 

Public  School,  No.  153  is  the  smallest  school  built  in  New 
York  City  during  recent  years.  This  building  is  in  the  sub- 
urban district  of  Bronx,  and  is  fire-proof  throughout. 

To  save  expense  separate  enclosures  for  outside  clothing  are 
not  provided  in  New  York  schools. 

The  recent  introduction  of  the  roof  playground  in  this  city 
(Fig.  93)  is  an  interesting  innovation,  and  one  of  practical 
economy  where  schoolhouses  are  built  upon  costly  sites. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COMPARISON  OF  FEATURES  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  separate  graded  class  system,  generally  adopted  in 
elementary  schools  throughout  the  United  States,  has  been 
developed  from  that  of  the  Teutonic  countries  of  Europe;  but 
certain  schools  of  the  former  country  still  retain  a  trace  of  their 
English  origin  in  the  "collective  exercises"  which  are  held 
in  the  assembly  halls.  In  England  these  collective  exercises 
are  held  in  a  large  hall,  which  is  usually  little  more  than  an 
exaggerated  corridor.  In  Germany  and  Austria  each  class 
remains  in  its  class  room  and  only  passes  thence  to  the  rooms 
assigned  for  instruction  in  special  studies,  to  the  gymnastic 
exercises,  or  to  the  shower-baths;  there  are  no  collective  exer- 
cises. In  these  countries  the  hall,  the  "  aula,"  is  only  used  for 
the  annual  examinations,  and  for  other  formal  exercises,  so 
that  it  is  often  given  a  monumental  and  always  an  enriched 
treatment,  as  if  to  express  the  dignity  of  the  State.  Assem- 
bly halls  are  provided  in  nearly  all  large  Swiss  schools;  they 
are  used  not  only  for  public  purposes,  but  for  collective  exer- 
cises, and  are  also  intended  as  places  of  entertainment  and 
social  recreation,  and,  as  such,  they  are  handsomely  finished. 
In  the  United  States  large  elementary  schools  are  provided 
with  assembly  halls,  which  have  had,  as  a  rule,  little,  if 
anv,  more  architectural  character  than  the  class  rooms  ; 
indeed,  the  principal  use  of  these  halls  is  that  of  a  large 
schoolroom  for  collective  exercises  and  for  exhibitions, 
although  they  are  sometimes  made  to  serve  for  social  en- 
tertainments. The  aula  is  seldom  found  in  Scandinavian 
schools,  but  the  well-nigh  constant  gymnasium  is  utilized  for 
public  exercises. 

In  Switzerland  and  in  America  the  system  of  warming  and 
ventilating  schools  has  been  more  highly  developed  than  else- 
where, except  in  some  of  the    later  English  schools,  where 


124  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

excellent  systems  of  artificial  warming  and  ventilation  have 
been  adopted. 

For  the  past  twenty  years  in  Switzerland,  and  the  past 
fifteen  in  the  United  States,  the  best  schools  have  been  planned, 
so  that  the  pupils'  out-of-door  clothing  is  not  only  excluded 
from  the  class  rooms,  but  from  the  corridors,  and  special  en- 
closures, provided  with  outside  light,  and  thoroughly  warmed 
and  specially  ventilated,  are  built  immediately  adjoining  each 
class  room.  The  code  of  rules  for  the  Board  of  Education 
of  Great  Britain  requires  that  "  cloak  rooms  should  not  be 
passages,  and  should  be  external  to  the  schoolrooms  and  class 
rooms,  with  gangways  at  least  4  ft.  wide  between  the  hanging 
nails  and  amply  lighted  from  the  end.  Thorough  ventilation 
is  essential,  so  that  smells  are  not  carried  into  the  school."  In 
England,  however,  separate  cloak  rooms  adjoining  each  class 
room  and  capable  of  being  completely  shut  off  from  the 
corridors  are  seldom  provided.  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
schools  of  Teutonic  countries  separate  enclosures  for  cloth- 
ing are  sometimes  provided,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  wraps 
are  hung  on  pegs  about  the  class  rooms,  and  it  is  within  but  a 
few  years  that  the  Prussian  schools  have  been  so  planned  as 
to  give  even  alcoves  off"  the  corridors  in  which  the  out-of-door 
clothing  could  be  hung.  The  hanging  of  clothes  in  the  cor- 
ridors is  an  alleviation,  not  a  correction  of  a  poor  condition; 
for  as  the  movement  of  air  is  naturally  from  the  colder  cor- 
ridors to  the  warmer  class  rooms,  —  especially  where  warmed 
fresh  air  is  artificially  supplied  to  these  rooms,  —  the  foul  odors 
from  the  clothing  must  find  their  way  thereto.  It  may  be 
noted  in  this  connection  that  three  times  a  week  every  pupil 
in  the  Berlin  elementary  schools  is  required  to  take  a  shower- 
bath  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher,  and  there  is  a  like 
S3^stem  in  other  German  schools  and  in  many  of  the  Scandi- 
navian schools  also. 

In  the  United  States  class  rooms  of  the  primary  and  gram- 
mar grades  are  usually  32  ft.  in  length.  A  greater  length 
makes  it  difficult  for  the  teacher's  voice  to  reach  the  pupils  in 


126 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  last  row  of  seats;  at  a  greater  distance  the  pupils'  work  on 
the  blackboards  at  the  end  of  the  room  cannot  be  readily  seen 
from  the  teacher's  seat.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  class 
rooms  are  about  30  ft.  in  length  and  they  are  seldom  more 
than  22  ft.,  and  are  often  but  20  ft.  wide,  and  it  is  gener- 
ally required  that  the  lighting  of  these  rooms  shall  be  from 
one  side  only.       In    the    United    States    the    class    rooms,  in 


FIG.    94.        CLASS    ROOM    FOR    FIFTY-SIX    PUPILS,    PRIMARY    GRADE. 

primary  schools,  are  usually  32  ft.  long,  24  ft.  wide,  and  12 
ft.  in  height  (Fig.  94)  ;  class  rooms  in  the  grammar  schools 
are  32  ft.  long,  28  ft.  wide,  and  13  ft,  in  height  (Fig.  95). 
These  are  the  dimensions  for  the  rooms  lighted  from  one  side 
onl}^,  as  well  as  for  the  corner  rooms.  In  most  American 
schools  the  pupils  of  all  grades,  and  in  the  Swiss  and  the  later 
Scandinavian  schools    the    older   pupils,  are  seated  at  single 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


127 


desks.  In  other  countries  forms  seating  four  pupils,  or  doubly 
desks,  are  generally  provided.  In  the  German  schools  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  grammar  grade  in  the  United  States,  the 
class  rooms  are  often  32  ft.  long,  22  ft.  wide,  and  13  ft.  high, 
and  accommodate,  upon  forms  seating  four  each,  fift3'-six 
pupils,  giving  a  floor  area  of  12^/^  sq.  ft.,  and  an  air  enclosure 
of    163    cu.   ft.   for  each  pupil.       The    Gemeindeschule,   No. 


FIG.     95.        CLASS    ROOM    FOR    FIFTY-SIX    PUPILS.        GRAMMAR    GRADE. 


204,  of  Berlin  (Chap.  II.,  Figs.  7,  8),  is  one  of  the  latest  and 
largest  built  in  that  city,  and  is  typical  of  the  best  Prussian 
schools  of  this  grade.  In  this  building  most  of  the  class 
rooms  are  approximately  28  ft.  long,  20  ft.,  9  ins.  wide,  13  ft. 
high,  and  accommodate,  on  forms,  fort3'-six  pupils,  giving  a 
floor  area  of  123^  sq.  ft.,  and  an  air  enclosure  of  161^2  cu.  ft. 
for  each  pupil. 


130  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  class  rooms  in  the  best  grammar  schoolhouses  built 
within  recent  years  in  Boston,  and  in  many  other  cities  of  the 
United  States,  are  32  ft.  long,  28  ft.  wide,  135^  ft.  high,  accom- 
modating,^ft}^-^ix  pupils  seated  at  single  desks,  giving  a  floor 
area  of  '16  sq.  ft.,  and  an  air  enclosure  of  216  cu.  ft.  for  each 
pupil.  I  ;  ,- 

■'=^ 'Theses areas  for  class  rooms  are,  as  we  have  seen,  much  in 
excessroif  those  found  in  the  latest  Prussian  schools,  but  they 
fall  far  short  of  those  advised  by  Dr.  Samuel  D.  Risley,  of 
Philadelphia,  in  his  treatise  on  the  lighting  of  schools.  Dr. 
Risley  recommends  that  a  class  room  should  be  32  ft.  long, 
24  ft.  wide,  15  ft.  high,  to  accommodate,  seated  at  single  desks, 
forty-five  grammar  school  pupils,  giving  a  floor  area  for  each 
of  19  sq.  ft.,  and  an  air  enclosure  of  250  cu.  ft.  for  each  pupil. 
The  rules  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  England  and  Wales 
state  that  "  in  rooms  14  ft.  high  any  space  beyond  24  ft.  from 
the  window  wall  is  insufficiently  lighted." 

It  is  required  in  Germany  that  the  row  of  desks  furthest 
from  the  windows  should  not  be  at  a  greater  distance  than 
once  and  one  half  the  height  of  the  room.  The  code  of  rules 
established  by  the  French  government  for  the  construction  of 
schools  fixes  the  minimum  allowed  height  of  a  class  room  at 
about  13  ft.,  2^  ins.,  and  where  the  light  comes  from  one  side 
only,  requires  that  the  minimum  height  of  the  room  shall  be 
two  thirds  of  its  width,  measured  from  the  inner  wall  to  the 
face  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  building.  In  a  brick  school  fitted 
with  double  sash,  a  class  room  lighted  from  one  side  only, 
28  ft.  wide,  would  require  a  height  of  19  ft;' a  room  24^  ft. 
wide  would  require  a  height  of  17  ft.;  one  21  ft.  wide  would 
require  a  height  of  14  ft.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  French  rule 
requires  a  greater  height  of  ceiling  than  that  recommended  by 
Dr.  Risle}';  i.  e.,  15  ft.  in  height  for  a  room  24  ft.  wide. 
Although  in  the  clear  atmosphere  of  the  United  States  a  room 
has  on  the  average,  throughout  the  year,  much  better  lighting 
than  would  a  room  of  like  dimensions  in  any  part  of  the  north 
of  the  continent  of  Europe,  or  in  England,  and  while  the  class- 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


131 


room  windows  in  the  United  States  are  less  often  obstructed 
by  transom  bars  and  by  the  cumbersome  joinery  of  casement 
sash,  the  American  class  rooms,  28  ft.  wide  and  13  ft.  or  even 
133^  ft.  in  height,  cannot  be  considered,  when  the  windows 
are  on  but  one  side,  as  sufficiently  lighted,  even  in  bright 
weather.     They  are  ill  lighted  on  dark  days. 

A  corner  room  with  these  dimensions  with  windows  on  two 
sides  is  sufficiently  lighted.  The  disadvantages  of  this  method 
of  placing  windows  will  be  considered  later  in  this  chapter. 


9^ 


3..P  ff  9 


3  9'"^  '5  9 1? 

9W 

WW  WW 

WW 

www  w 

WW 

□  □  n  n 
0    D    0    0 

WW 

WW  WW 

FIG.    96.       CLASS    ROOM    FOR    FORTY-EIGHT    PUPILS,    GRAMMAR    GRADE. 

The  desks  for  the  primary  grade  are  13  by  21  ins.;  31  ins.  is 
allowed  from  the  front  of  the  desk  to  the  back  of  the  seat; 
the  smallest  size  desk  for  primary  classes  is  12  by  18  ins.;  the 
space  from  the  front  of  the  desk  to  the  back  of  the  seat  is  29 
ins.  In  the  grammar  grade  desks  are  16  by  24  ins.;  the  space 
from  front  of  the  desk  to  the  back  of  the  seat  is  34   ins.     In 


132 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


class  rooms  of  the  primary  grade  the  aisles  between  the  desks 
are  17  ins.  wide,  and  in  those  of  the  grammar  grade  they  are 
18  ins.  wide. 

A  class  room  24  by  32  ft.  gives  seatings  for  fifty-six  pupils 
of  the  primary  grade,  and  with  the  width  of  24^  ft.  (Fig.  96), 
accommodates  forty-eight  pupils  of  the  grammar  grade.  Class 
rooms  32  ft.  long  and  21  ft.  wid.e  (Fig.  97),  and  giving  seatings 


99 

9  9 

9  9 


rz 


9 


99 


9  9.,9  9  9  1 

QQ- 

0  □  Q 
000 

9  9 

0  ^  rn 

D      D      0 

9  9 

999 

9  9 

999 

MM^DKOBC 


FIG.     97.        CLASS    ROOM    FOR    FORTY    PUPILS,     GRAMMAR    GRADE. 


for  forty  pupils  of  the  grammar  grade,  if  13/^  ft.  high  would 
be  as  well  lighted  as  need  be,  and  would  accommodate  as 
small  a  number  of  pupils  as  is  likely  ever  to  be  authorized. 
While  not  fully  meeting  the  theoretical  requirements  of  a 
width  of  one  and  a  half  times  the  height  of  the  room,  a  class 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


133 


room  with  these  dimensions  witli  windows  on  one  side  only 
would  be  as  well  lighted  as  can  reasonably  be  expected. 

In  the  schools  recently  built  for  the  city  of  New  York,  a 
height  for  class  rooms  of  14  ft.  3  ins.  has  been  adopted.  Class 
rooms  28  ft.  wide,  even  with  this  ceiling  height,  cannot  be 
well  lighted  from  one  side  onl}-,  but  if  the  width  be  reduced 


UE    LANCEY    SCHOOL,     PHILADELPHIA. 
George  C.  Mason,  Architect. 


to  24]^  ft.,  they  would  be  as  well  lighted  as  it  is  necessary  to 
attempt,  for  it  is  not  advisable  to  add  to  the  height  of  stories 
be3'ond  this  point,  not  only  on  account  of  the  increase  in  cost 
of  construction  thereby  entailed,  but  because  of  the  increase  in 
the  number  or  height  of  staircase  risers.  This  latter  considera- 
tion may  not  be  so  important  in  the  future  as  it  is   now,  for 


134 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


135 


136  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

schools  to  be  built  in  crowded  city  districts  will  probably  be 
several  stories  in  height,  and  they  will  have  liberal  elevator 
service.  An  example  of  the  tendency  in  this  direction  is 
the  De  Lance}''  School  (Figs.  98,  99),  a  private  secondary- 
school  recently  built  in  Philadelphia.  This  has  a  feature 
which  we  have  found  in  later  New  York  City  schools;. the 
roof  playground,  which  will  probably  find  general  adoption 
in  localities  where  the  land  is  expensive  and  where  the  law 
requires  the  construction  of  schools  wholly  of  incombustible 
materials. 

In  France  windows  are  sometimes  set  on  the  right  as  well 
as  on  the  left  hand  of  the  pupils,  but  those  on  the  right-hand 
side  are  not  primarily  for  the  admission  of  light,  but  to  flush 
the  room  with  air  and  to  admit  sunlight  during  the  absence 
of  the  pupils. 

The  rule  of  the  Education  Department  of  England  and 
Wales  is:  "  The  light  should  as  far  as  possible,  and  especially 
in  class  rooms,  be  admitted  from  the  left  side  of  the  scholars. 
All  other  windows  in  class  rooms  should  be  regarded  as  sup- 
plementary, or  for  summer  ventilation.  Windows  full  in  the 
eyes  of  the  teachers  or  scholars  are  not  approved." 

In  Switzerland  windows  are  often  placed  in  both  outer  walls 
of  class  rooms,  and  a  like  s^^stem  of  lighting  is  found  in  some 
Austrian  and  German  schools,  but  usually  the  north  wall, 
when  at  the  back  of  the  pupils,  is  that  only  used  for  such 
lighting.  In  a  good  number  of  the  Scandinavian  schools, — 
although  not  in  the  best,  and  seldom  in  those  of  most  recent 
construction,  —  cross  lighting  is  found. 

With  class  rooms  28  ft.  wide,  windows  on  both  walls  of 
corner  rooms  must  be  accepted  as  a  necessity  for  sufficient 
lighting;  the  diffusion  of  light  gained  by  this  method  out- 
weighs the  disadvantage  of  cross  lighting,  which  is  mainly 
objectionable  in  writing  exercises,  when  it  is  best  to  have  all 
the  light  from  the  left-hand  side  only,  but  otherwise  the  qualit}' 
of  light,  and  not  its  direction,  is  the  most  important  considera- 
tion as  far  as  the  pupils  are  concerned. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.  I37 

A  constant  glare  in  the  teacher's  e3'es  is  certainly  objection- 
able. Exposure  to  such  a  condition,  day  after  day,  cannot  fail 
to  have  an  injurious  effect  on  even  the  strongest  eyes,  and  the 
exclusion  of  light  by  shades  is  but  an  alleviation  of  the  defect. 
In  a  well-designed  court  room  such  a  condition  would  not  be 
permitted,  and  it  certainly  should  not  obtain  in  class  rooms. 
Where  the  class  room  28  ft.  wide  is  required,  this  disadvan- 
tage may  be  partially  obviated  by  leaving  a  blank  space  in  the 
wall  directly  opposite  the  teacher's  desk  and  placing  windows 
on  either  side  of  this  space  as  near  the  corners  of  the  room  as 
the  construction  may  permit.  This  method  of  placing  the 
windows  in  the  wall  opposite  the  teacher's  desk  has  been 
adopted  in  some  of  the  later  American  schools. 

The  use  of  corner  class  rooms  of  the  excessive  width  of 
28  ft.  has  the  further  disadvantage,  that  in  a  symmetrically  dis- 
posed plan  two  of  the  corner  rooms  must  have,  if  the  light  is 
taken  from  the  two  outer  walls,  the  seatings  parallel  to  the 
wall  through  which  comes  the  principal  light.  In  permitting 
light  from  one  side  only,  and  in  not  giving  excessive  width  to 
corner  as  well  as  inside  rooms,  this  difficulty  is  eliminated 
from  the  problem  of  school  planning. 

The  so-called  "  cart-wheel  "  plan,  illustrated  by  the  Long- 
fellow School,  Boston,  Mass.  (Fig.  100),  first  tried  in  Toledo, 
Ohio,  has  sometimes  been  used  in  the  United  States  to  make 
possible  the  lighting  of  corner  rooms  on  two  sides  while  re- 
taining the  principal  light  from  the  left-hand  side  of  the  pupils. 
With  such  an  arrangement,  the  principal  light  comes  from  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  pupils;  the  teacher  does  not  face  the  glare 
that  comes  from  the  long  side  of  the  room;  the  desks  need 
not  be  placed  parallel  to  the  long  side  of  the  room,  so  that  the 
class  is  more  easily  supervised  by  the  teacher.  But  the  "  cart- 
wheel "  plan  involves,  in  most  cases,  either  an  undesirable 
irregularity  of  the  exterior  design,  or  wasted  space  in  the  plan- 
ning of  the  building,  and  hence  is  seldom  adopted. 

In  equipment  for  gymnastic  exercise,  bathing  facilities, 
cooking  schools,  and  manual  training,  the  American  element- 


138 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


SECOND   FLOOR    PLAN. 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 


BASEMENT  PLAN. 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN. 


FIG.     lOO.       LONGFELLOW    SCHOOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


139 


ary  schools  are  not  generally  as  well  provided  as  those  of  the 
countries  of  northern  Europe,  and  even  as  those  of  England. 

The  feature  of  the  school  garden,  now  widely  introduced 
in  northern  European  countries,  is  almost  unknown  in  the 
United  States. 

Relatively  to  other  countries,  in  liberal  areas  and  in  the 
decorative  treatment  of  playgrounds  the  American  schools  are 
deficient. 

In  the  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  greater  floor  and 
cubical  area  for  each  pupil  is  given  in  the  elementary  class 
rooms  than  is  found  in  those  of  any  other  country. 


LONGFELLOW    SCHOOL,    BOSTON. 
Walker  &  Kimball,  Architects. 

Excepting,  possibly,  in  the  Swiss  and  in  some  of  the  later 
schools  of  Great  Britain,  an  ampler  supply  of  warmed  fresh 
air  and  larger  ducts  for  ventilation  are  provided  in  American 
schools  than  elsewhere. 

In  the  best  of  the  American  schools  there  is  better  provision 


140  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

for  the  disposal  of  out-door  clothing  than  is  generally  found, 
except  in  some  Swiss  examples  and  in  the  later  schools  of  the 
principal  cities  in  Scandinavian  countries.  There  are  better 
plumbing  appliances  in  the  American  schools  than  are  prob- 
ably to  be  found  in  any  country.  The  American  schools 
have  the  further  advantage  of  the  most  generous  provision  of 
individual  desks  for  the  pupils;  they  have  blackboard  surface 
for  the  use  of  the  pupils, —  a  very  uncommon  feature  else- 
where. In  one  respect  the  schools  of  the  United  States  suffer 
most  noticeably  in  comparison  with  those  of  European  coun- 
tries where  popular  education  has  been  developed:  sufficient 
light  is  not  provided  for  the  class  rooms,  except  in  those  on 
the  corners  of  the  building;  and  in  these  the  light  is  not 
usuall}^  disposed  in  the  best  manner.  This  defect  arises  from 
the  adoption  in  the  grammar  grades  of  the  class  of  fifty-six 
pupils  seated  at  single  desks.  It  originates  in  what  the  writer 
believes  to  be  mistaken  economy  in  school  administration.  In 
Switzerland  public  education  is  not  absolutely  free,  but  the 
tuition  charge  is  small;  but  in  what  may  be  called  the  gram- 
mar grades  a  class  seldom  has  more  than  forty  pupils,  and  the 
width  of  class  rooms  is  rarely  in  excess  of  24  ft.;  while  in  the 
United  States  classes  of  fifty-six  pupils  and  rooms  28  ft.  in 
width  are  usually  required  by  school  committees. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  funds  provided  for  public  education 
should  be  spent  with  economy,  but  it  should  riot  be  forgotten 
that  the  physical  fitness  of  the  children  who  are  trained  in  the 
schools  is  one  of  the  economical  considerations  of  the  problem. 
If  through  defective  lighting  of  the  class  rooms,  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  the  pupils  have  their  eyesight  impaired,  then  the 
community  is  by  so  much  less  recompensed  for  its  expenditure 
in  the  instruction  of  its  children. 

It  should  be  considered,  also,  that  if  the  grammar  class 
rooms  are  built  24^  ft.  instead  of  28  ft.  in  width,  there  will 
be,  on  account  of  the  narrower  spans  of  the  floor  beams,  an 
appreciable  economy  in  the  cost  of  school  construction,  espe- 
cially in  those  built  with  steel  beam  and  masonry  or  concrete 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS.  I4I 

arch  floor  construction.  This  saving  should  be  placed  to  the 
credit  of  the  system  of  grammar  grade  classes  of  forty-eight 
instead  of  fifty-six  pupils.  It  seems  probable  that  pupils  in 
smaller  classes  would  pass  through  the  grades  with  greater 
rapidity  than  in  the  present  large  classes,  and  thus  free  the  way 
more  quickly  for  the  pupils  of  the  lower  grades.  If  so,  this 
would  be  another  factor  to  be  credited  to  the  system  of  smaller 
classes.  It  is  for  the  school  authorities,  with  the  advice  of 
educators,  to  decide  whether  the  lesser  number  of  pupils 
under  each  teacher  means  greater  average  progress  for  the 
pupils  as  a  whole.  Architects  who  have^  considered  the  sub- 
ject would  agree  that  unless  the  number  of  pupils  assigned  to 
a  grammar  class  room  in  the  United  States  is  decreased  from 
fifty-six,  no  radical  improvement  can  be  made  in  the  planning 
of  the  schools  of  that  country. 

Individual  desks  for  each  pupil  should  be  retained,  and 
ample  floor  area,  cubical  area,  and  warmed  air  supply  should 
be  provided;  but  the  school  authorities  of  the  United  States 
should  not  persist  in  a  policy  which  is  not  approved,  from  the 
pedagogical  point  of  view,  by  the  most  enlightened  educa- 
tors, and  which  necessitates  defective  lighting  of  the  class  * 
rooms. 

Whether  such  change  in  system  will  prove  to  be  reasonably 
economical  can  only  be  determined  by  building  in  some  cit}'' 
one  or  more  large  grammar  schools  designed  for  classes  of 
forty-eight,  or  better,  for  forty  pupils. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SECONDARY    SCHOOLS    OF    NORTHERN    EUROPE    AND 

ENGLAND. 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  only  secondary  schools  in  Ger- 
many were  the  Latin  schools,  which  were  often  old  founda- 
tions, and  of  which  many  were  boarding  schools. 

In  1808  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  began  to  remodel  Prussian 
secondary  education.  He  made  the  local  Latin  schools  highly 
classical,  and  discouraged  the  continuance  of  secondary  schools 
with  a  curriculum  designed  to  fit  boys  for  commercial  life. 

Spillepe  began  in  1822  agitation  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Realschule,  or  non-classical  high  school.  By  1832  the  Real- 
schule  system  had  not  only  been  established,  but  there  were 
two  varieties  of  such  schools :  the  Realschule,  wholly  "  modern  " 
in  its  curriculum,  and  the  Realgymnasium,  where  Latin  but  not 
Greek  was  taught  in  addition  to  "  modern"  studies. 

In  1882  the  Education  Department  of  Prussia  re-classified 
the  several  types  of  secondary  schools.  The  first  group  for 
schools  with  course  of  nine  years  consisted  of  the  Gymnasium, 
the  fully  classical  school;  the  Realgymnasium,  with  Latin  but 
no  Greek  courses;  the  Oberrealschule,  with  no  Latin  or  Greek 
courses.  The  second  group  with  six  years'  course  consisted 
of  the  Progymnasium,  fully  classical;  the  Realgymnasium, 
where  Latin  but  no  Greek  is  taught;  the  Hohere  Burgerschule, 
where  no  Latin  or  Greek  are  taught.  The  third  type  was  the 
Realschule,  non-classical  with  a  seven  years'  course. 

Since  1 89 1  the  Prussian  secondary  schools  have  been  re- 
classified and  now  are  the  Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium, 
and  the  Oberrealschule.  From  the  Gymnasium  only  may 
pupils  pass  to  all  the  courses  of  the  university,  and  to  higher 
military  and  naval  service.  The  Realgymnasium  gives  admis- 
sion to  the  Polytechnic  schools,  to  the  military  and  naval  ser- 
vice equally  with  the  Gymnasium,  but  only  to  the  courses  in 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS.  I43 

modern  languages  at  the  universities.  The  Oberrealschule 
graduate  is  admitted  to  the  Polytechnics  only.  The  course  in 
all  three  grades  is  nine  years.  To  permit  boys  to  enter  practi- 
cal life  earlier  if  they  desire  to  do  so,  a  distinct  stage  in  the 
education  in  all  three  grades  is  arranged  at  the  end  of  a  six 
years'  course.  The  Gymnasium  has  been  made  less  distinc- 
tively classical,  and  greater  attention  is  now  given  in  this  class 
of  school  to  the  sciences,  modern  languages,  and  drawing. 

The  plans  of  all  these  secondary  schools  built  in  more 
recent  years  are  therefore  essentially  the  same;  and  while  the 
secondary  schools  of  other  parts  of  Germany,  of  Austria,  and 
of  Switzerland  are  not  classified  according  to  the  present 
Prussian  system,  the  features  of  the  plans  of  buildings  built  at 
the  same  period  offer  no  essential  variation.  The  Tochter- 
schule,  the  higher  school  for  girls,  also  has  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  the  other  German  secondary  schools.  All 
secondary  schools  of  Teutonic  countries  may  therefore  be 
considered  together  as  being  practically  of  one  class  varying 
in  type. 

The  maximum  number  of  pupils  in  the  lower  classes  of  any 
secondary  Prussian  school  is  forty;  in  the  highest  classes  the 
average  maximum  ranges  from  twenty-four  to  seven.  One 
result  of  the  Berlin  Conference  of  Education  instituted  in  1890 
by  the  emperor  was  to  advise  that  the  maximum  number  of 
pupils  in  a  secondary  school  should  be  four  hundred. 

In  the  plans  of  the  several  grades  of  the  Realschule  we  find 
generally  more  ample  provision  than  in  the  classical  schools 
for  the  teaching  of  the  sciences,  and  for  drawing,  modeling, 
etc.     These  ditferences  are  but  in  degree. 

In  all  secondary  schools  janitors'  quarters  are  provided,  and 
in  most  there  are  apartments  for  the  master  and  sometimes  for 
other  teachers. 

In  but  three  of  the  buildings  whose  plans  appear  in  this 
chapter  —  the  Oberrealschule  at  Leitomischl,  the  Cantonal 
School  at  Berne,  and  the  Realschule  at  Karlsruhe  —  is  there 
departure  from  the  scientific  principle  of  exclusively  left-hand 


144 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


lighting  for  class  rooms.  These  are  the  only  Teutonic  second- 
ary schools  whose  plans  the  writer  has  seen  which  are  excep- 
tional in  this  respect. 

The  turnhalle,  or  gymnasium,  appears  to  be  invariably  a 
feature  in  secondary  schools,  but  is  not  always  an  integral  part 
of,  or  in  close  conjunction  with,  the  school  building. 

The  Gymnasium  at  Gottingen  (Fig.  loi)  is  a  typical  example. 
It  has   nineteen  class  rooms,  accommodating  seven  hundred 


IMPERIAL    GYMNASIUM,     VIENNA.        THE    AULA,     OR    EXAMINATION    HALL. 

and  thirty  pupils,  including  those  of  the  Vorschule,  or  pre- 
paratory department,  two  reserve  class  rooms,  the  room  for 
instruction  in  physics,  chemistry,  and  natural  sciences,  with 
chemical  laboratory,  and  storage  rooms  for  natural  history  col- 
lections and  ph3'sical  apparatus,  drawing  room,  teachers'  room, 
teachers'  and  pupils'  library,  aula,  apartments  for  head  master 
and  janitor  ;  the  "career,"  in  which  refractory  pupils  are  con- 
fined, is  probably  in  the  basement.     Adjoining  the  main  build- 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


H5 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


THIRD  FLOOR  PLAN. 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN. 

FIG.     lOI.       GYMNASIUM,    gOTTINGEN,    PRUSSIA. 


146 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIRST  FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG.     102.       CANTONAL    SCHOOL,    BERNE,    SWITZERLAND. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


147 


ing  is  the  turnhalle,  and  the  toilet  rooms  are  in  a  separate 
building.  The  class  rooms  are  about  20  ft.  wide  and  13^  ft. 
high.  The  plan  of  this  building  is  more  compact  than  is 
usually  the  case  in  Teutonic  buildings  of  this  grade.  We 
find  here  a  longitudinal  corridor  with  rooms  on  either  hand,  the 
only  direct  light  to  the  corridor  being  from  the  staircase  in 
the  center  and  at  either  end.  The  aula  is  on  the  third  floor  in 
the  central  position. 

The    Cantonal    School    at    Berne    (Fig.    102)    is    designed 
upon    essentially  the    same    principle   as   that  of  the  preced- 


FIKST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     103.        GYMNASIUM,     SALZWEDEL,     PRUSSIA. 


ing  example,  although  the  light  at  the  rear  of  the  central 
portion  does  not  come  down  the  staircase,  but  from  win- 
dows at  the  end  of  another  corridor  parallel  to  the  main  one, 
and  behind  the  main  staircase.  In  the  Berne  school  the  aula 
is  on  the  second  floor  and  in  an  |_  at  the  rear.  On  this  floor 
are  twelve  class  rooms,  a  room  for  conference,  one  for  private 
instruction,  the  chemical  laboratory,  a  drawing  room,  a  natural 
history  cabinet,  a  school  museum,  and  the  library,  which  is 


148 


SCHOOl.    ARCHITECTURE. 


SECOND   AND  THIRD    FLOOR    PLANS. 
FIG.     104.        KAISER    WILHELM    GYMNASIUM,     AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,     PRUSSIA. 


SECOND   AND   THIRD    FLOOR    PLANS. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     105.       REALSCHULE,    KARLSRUHE,    BADEN. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


149 


centrally  placed  above  the  main  entrance.  On  the  first  floor 
there  are  ten  class  rooms,  chemical  lecture  room,  and  chemical 
laboratories,  manual  training  rooms,  and  a  modeling  room. 
Toilet  rooms  on  each  story  are  placed  on  either  side  of  the 
main  staircase  and  in  each  of  the  wings. 

The  Gymnasium  at  Salzwedel  (Fig.  103)  is  a  smaller  ex- 
ample of  essentially  the  same  plan  type  as  the  Berne  school, 
although  the  |_  is  much  exaggerated  and  is  used  for  class 
rooms  as  well  as  for  the  turnhalle. 


KONIG    WILHELM    gymnasium,    STETTIN,    PRUSSIA. 

The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Gymnasium  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (Fig. 
104),  also,  has  a  longitudinal  corridor  plan,  but  with  no  central 
staircase,  and  direct  light  is  given  the  corridor  from  the  rear 
wall.     The  aula  is  in  the  second  story  above  the  turnhalle. 

The  Realschule  at  Karlsruhe  (Fig.  105)  is  also  designed 
with  a  longitudinal  corridor  entirely  open  to  the  light.  There 
is  but  one  staircase,  and  that  in  the  |_  opposite  the  entrance. 
The  aula  is  on  the  third  floor  in  the  main  pavilion.     There  are 


ISO 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


fifteen  class  rooms,  and  a  complete  equipment  for  instruction 
in  chemistry  and  physics,  and  a  drawing  room  of  the  size  of 
two  class  rooms. 

The  Konig  Wilhelm  Gymnasium  at  Stettin  (Fig.  io6)  gives 
another  example  of  the  longitudinal  corridor  type.  Here 
the  arrangement  is  reversed,  and  the  corridor  with  the  stair- 
cases are  placed  at  the  front  of  the  building,  with  the  aula  at 
the  rear.     It  will  be  noted  that  this  school  has  no  special  pro- 


SECOND   FLOOR   PLAN. 


FIRST   FLOOR   PLAN. 
FIG    Io6.        KONIG    WILHELM    GYMNASIUM,    STETTIN,    PRUSSIA. 

vision  for  instruction  in  either  chemistry  or  in  drawing.  The 
building  is  two  stories  in  height.  The  first  story  is  nearly  15 
ft.,  and  the  second  story  nearly  i^'jA  ft.  in  the  clear.  The  aula 
has  a  height  of  24  ft. 

The  Gymnasium  at  Bromberg  (Fig.  107)  is  an  example  of 
the  [_  type  of  school  building,  in  which  the  class  rooms  give 
only  from  one  side  of  the  corridors.     This  building  has  three 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


151 


Stories  with  seventeen  class  rooms  and  physical,  chemical,  and 
drawing  rooms.     The  height  of  each  story  is  ubout  14^  ft. 

The  plan  of  the  Oberrealschule  at  Leitomischl  (Fig.  108) 
illustrates  the  ^  plan  type,  and  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Realschule  at  Karlsruhe,  except  it  is  a  larger  and  more 


FIKST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     107.       GYMNASIUM,    BROMBERG,    PRUSSIA. 

complete  building  and  without  an  aula.  It  has  a  turnhalle 
which  is  probably  used  also  for  examinations,  but  this  room 
is  placed  in  one  of  the  wings  and  not  in  the  front  of  the  cen- 
tral pavilion  as  is  done  in  the  Karlsruhe  school. 


152 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     108.        OBERREALSCHULE,     LEITOMISCHL,     BOHEMIA,     AUSTRIA. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


153 


The  Leitomischl  school  has  toilet  rooms  in  the  main  body 
of  the  building,  an  arrangement  very  rarely  found  in  German 
schools.  The  building  is  three  stories  in  height.  On  the  first 
floor  are  the  rooms  for  instruction  in  chemistry  and  physics, 


FIG.     109.       REALSCHULE,    MAGDEBURG,    SAXON    PRUSSIA, 

together  with  one  large  class  room.  The  janitor's  quarters 
adjoin  the  main  entrance.  On  the  second  floor,  besides  the 
class  rooms,  there  are  the  library,  a  conference  room,  and  the 


154 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


apartments  of  the  master.  On  the  third  floor  are  the  assembly 
hall,  rooms  for  modeling,  a  drawing  room,  and  class  rooms. 
The  height  of  the  assembly  hall  is  about  i8  ft.,  and  that  of 
the  other  rooms  about  13  ft.  9  ins. 

The  ^  type  is  again  shown  by  the  plans  of  the  Realschule 
in  Magdeburg  (Fig.  109).  The  teachers'  and  janitors'  houses 
partly  complete  the  whole  as  a  courtyard  plan,  but  above  the  first 
floor  the  plan  (Fig.  no)  is  essentially  that  of  the  Leitomischl 


THIRD    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     no.       REALSCHULE,    MAGDEBURG,    SAXON    PRUSSIA. 

school;  the  corridor  in  the  Magdeburg  school  runs  on  the 
outer  wall  with  the  rooms  on  the  court;  in  Leitomischl 
school  this  relation  is  reversed.  This  plan  is  unusual  in  hav- 
ing duplicate  features,  except  the  aula  and  the  drawing  room, 
on  either  side  of  the  main  axis  of  the  building. 

The  Gymnasium  at  Hildesheim  (Fig.  m)  is  another  ex- 
ample of  the  ^  type.  Instead  of  a  staircase  at  the  rear  on  the 
main  axis,  there  are  two  staircases  on  either  side  of  the  main 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


155 


entrance  hall,  and  the  aula  runs  through  from  front  to  rear  of 
the  central  pavilion  on  the  third  floor.  The  class  rooms  in 
the  two  wings  are  arranged  to  have  the  same  orientation. 

The  Realgymnasium  at  Karlsruhe  (Fig.  112)  is  on  an 
irregular  lot,  and  presents  a  partially  enclosed  court.  The 
class  rooms  in  their  relation  to  the  corridors  are  like  the 
preceding  example. 

Another  plan  on  an  irregular  lot,  showing  the  similar  rela- 
tion of  corridor  to  class  rooms  found  in  the  two  preceding  ex- 


FIG. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

GYMNASIUM,     HILDESHEIM,    PRUSSIA. 


amples,  is  the  Leibnitz  Realschule  at  Hanover  (Fig.  113),  a 
city  which  is  famous  for  the  architectural  treatment  of  irregu- 
lar corner  lots. 

The  skilful  treatment  of  another  school  upon  a  similar 
eccentric  corner  is  shown  by  the  plans  of  the  Realschule  at 
Leipsic-Reudnitz  (Fig.  114). 


156 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


THIRD    FLOOR    PLAN. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     112.    REALGYMNASIUM,    KARLSRUHE,    BADEN. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


157 


The  Tochterschule  at  Basel,  Switzerland  (Figs.  115,  116), 
presents  a  plan  of  the  ^  type,  and  another  variation  of  stair- 
case arrangement,  there  being  two  staircases  at  the  rear  with 
a  class  room  between  same,  while  in  Magdeburg  there  is  a 
sino^le  monumental  staircase.  In  the  Hildesheim  school  there 
are  two  staircases,  but  at  the  front  on  either  side  of  the  en- 


FIG.     113.        LEIBNITZ    REALSCHULE,    HANOVER,   PRUSSIA. 

trance  hall.  The  Basel  school  is  in  two  divisions:  the  class 
rooms  for  the  younger  pupils,  boys  and  girls,  are  on  the  first 
floor;  the  upper  floors  are  assigned  to  girls  of  the  more  ad- 
vanced classes.  This  arrangement  accounts  for  the  provision 
of  turnhalles  for  both  sexes. 


158 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Annen  Realschule  in  Dresden  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  117. 
In  the  basement  there  are  three  laboratories,  together  with  the 
boiler  room,  etc.,  and  the  quarters  for  the  janitor  and  his  assis- 
tants. On  the  ground  floor  there  are  eight  class  rooms,  one  of 
which  is  for  instruction  in  chemistry,  ph^-sics,  and  natural 
history.  There  are  also  storage  rooms  for  chemistry  and 
physical  apparatus  and  natural  history  collections.  On  the 
second  floor  are  the  library,  the  record  room,  and  the  conference 
room;  there  is  also  a  room  for  the  librarian,  and  a  conference 


STATE    GYMNASIUM,    STETTIN,    PRUSSIA. 

room  adjoins  the  directors  office.  There  are  eight  class  rooms 
on  this  floor,  of  which  one  is  for  freehand  drawing  and  one  for 
the  singing  class  room  \  besides,  there  is  a  room  for  mathematical 
instruments,  a  small  room  for  surveying  implements,  and  a 
room  for  music  books.  On  the  third  floor  are  the  aula,  a 
teachers'  room,  an  exhibition  hall,  a  room  of  mechanical  draw- 
ing, a  "  career,"  four  class  rooms,  and  m  the  western  wing  the 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


159 


apartments  for  the  head  masters.  The  height  of  ground  floor 
is  13%  ft.,  and  of  the  two  other  stories  about  12^/^  ft. 

As  a  type  of  a  secondary  school  which  is  designed  wholly 
upon  the  principle  of  a  single  courtyard,  the  plan  of  the  Gym- 
nasium and  Realgymnasium  at  Bernburg  (Fig.  118)  is  given. 
This  building  is  interesting  m  being  a  combined  classical  and 
partly  classical  school. 

The  southern  part  of  the  building  is  assigned  to  the  Gym- 
nasium; the  northwestern  part  to  the  Realgymnasium  and 
the    Vorschule  (preparatory    school).     The    Gymnasium  has 


FIG.     114.        REALSCHULE,     LEIPSIC-REUDNITZ,    SAXONY. 

nine  class  rooms;  the  Realgymnasium  has  the-  same  number; 
the  Vorschule  has  four  class  rooms.  Most  of  the  rooms  used 
by  either  schools  are  in  the  middle  section  of  the  building. 
The  two  main  entrances,  one  for  the  Gymnasium,  the  other 
for  the  Realgymnasium,  are  in  the  .middle  of  the  short  sides  of 
the  building,  opposite  the  main  staircase.  The  division  of  the 
ground  and  second  floors  is  evident  from  the  accompanying 
cuts.  The  third  floor  has  four  class  rooms  for  each  of  the  two 
schools,  the  large  drawing  hall  of  the  Gymnasium,  the  natural 
history  collection,  and  a  spare  class  room  for  the  Realgym- 


i6o 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


nasium.  In  the  rear  of  the  short  side  and  in  the  middle  wing 
of  the  long  sides  is  the  common  hall  for  singing,  which  extends 
from  the  back  to  the  wall  of  the  courtyard.  In  the  basement 
there  are  quarters  for  the  two  janitors,  a  wash  kitchen,  the 
necessary  cellar  rooms,  and  the  furnace  room.  The  distinctly 
dual  character  of  the  curriculums  of  the  two  schools  is  evident 
in  that  separate  offices  are  provided  for  the  master  of  the 
Gymnasium  and  for  the  master  of  the  Realg3'mnasium. 


TOCHTERSCHULE,    BASEL,    SWITZERLAND. 

The  three  stories  are  each  14^  ft.  high.  The  aula  is 
2g%  ft.  high.  Each  school  has  its  own  playground.  The 
water-closets  and  the  Gymnasium  are  common. 

In  France  most  of  the  public  secondary  schools  are  board- 
ing schools  to  which  day  scholars  are  also  admitted.  The 
general  arrangements  of  the  plans  of  schools  of  this  grade  are 
like  that  of  the  elementary  schools  described  in  Chapter  II. 

Public  secondary  education  in  England  has  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  or  comprehensively  organized,  and   a  very  large 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


l6l 


part  of  the  secondary  education  of  England  is  conducted  by 
private  schools,  which  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this 
work. 

The  report  of  the  Schools  Inquir}^  Commission  of  1867 
recommended  that  the  ordinary  secondary  schools  should  be 
divided  into  three  groups:  those  of  the  first  grade,  which  pre- 


FIG.     115. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
t5cHTERSCHULE,     BASEL,    SWITZERLAND. 


pare  for  the  universities,  the  leaving  age  of  the  pupils  being 
about  eighteen;  such  grades  are  usually  endowed  or  private 
schools;  the  second  grade  designed  to  equip  a  boy  for  com- 
mercial life  or  scientific  work,  the  leaving  age  being  about 
sixteen;  and  the  third-grade  schools  designed  to  give  training 
for  industrial   occupations  and  subordinate  positions  in  com- 


l62 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     I  1 6.        tOcHTERSCHULE,     BASEL,    SWITZERLAND. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


163 


|)f>— Oa 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN.  THIRD    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     117.        ANNEN    REALSCHULE,     DRESDEN,    SAXONY. 


ANNEN    REALSCHULE,    DRESDEN,    SAXONY. 


164  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

merce,  the  leaving  age  being  about  fourteen.  The  higher 
grade  Board  Schools,  to  a  great  extent,  constitute  the  third 
grade,  and  the  term  "secondary"  is  applied  generall}^  to  the 
schools  of  the  first  and  second  grade  only,  although  some  of 
the  higher  grade  Board  Schools  have  a  scope  approaching  that 
of  the  high  schools  of  the  United  States  and  the  German  Real- 
schule,  but  they  are  more  analogous  to  the  higher  Burgerschule 
of  Germany. 

The  Department  of  Science  and  Art  has  conducted,  since 
1890,  evening  classes  in  science  and  art,  and  evening  and  day 
schools  of  art;  out  of  the  evening  science  schools,  "  organized 
science  "  day  schools  have  developed.  The  number  of  sub- 
jects that  might  be  studied  in  these  schools  has  gradually  been 
limited,  and  the  courses  have  been  made  less  technical  and 
more  educational.  The  requirements  of  the  department  have 
come  within  the  scope  of  manj*  secondary  schools  of  the 
second  grade;  and  many  of  these,  mostly  of  the  endowed 
class,  together  with  the  higher  grade  board  schools,  in  order 
to  profit  by  the  government  grants,  have  placed  themselves 
under  the  authority  of  the  department. 

The  Technical  Instruction  Acts,  the  first  of  which  are  found 
in  1889,  empowered  local  authorities  to  establish  their  own 
schools  and  to  aid  existing  schools  by  grants.  Accordingly 
large  sums  have  been  expended  by  municipalities  in  providing 
for  teaching  in  science,  art,  commercial  subjects,  and  domestic 
economy  in  secondary  schools,  so  that  few  of  them  are  now 
without  drawing  rooms,  equipment  for  domestic  economy, 
and  manual  training  or  laboratories,  chemical  and  physical. 
The  same  acts  empowered  the  municipalities  to  establish 
technical  schools.  These  technical  schools  are  not  under  the 
authority  of  the  school  boards,  but  under  that  of  the  mayor 
and  aldermen. 

By  recent  act  of  parliament  the  education  and  the  science 
and  art  departments  are  to  be  consolidated,  and  the  Board  of 
Education  is  to  be  presided  over  by  a  minister  of  education. 
Under  this  act  the  Qiieen  in  Council  may  transfer  to  this  board 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


165 


SECOND   KLOOK    I'LAN. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     118.       GYMNASIUM    AND    REALGYMNASIUM, 

BERNBURG,    ANHALT,     GERMANY. 


i66  FACADE    ON    COURTYARD    OF    LYCEE    VICTOR    HUGO,    PARIS, 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


167 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     119.       CENTRAL    SCHOOL,    MANCHESTER,    ENGLAND. 


i68 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 


FOURTH    FLOOK    PLAN. 


THIRD    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     1 20.       CENTRAL    SCHOOL,     MANCHESTER,    ENGLAND. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


169 


the  educational  powers  of  the  charity  commissioners  and  of 
the  Board  of  Agriculture;  when  this  is  done  the  Board  of 
Education  will  have  under  its  direction  elementary  and  sec- 
ondar}^  education  and  all  grades  of  science  and  art,  and  of 
technical  and  commercial  education,  and  will  also  have  power 
to  inspect  and  examine  all  secondary  schools  on  the  invitation 
of  their  governing  bodies.  Through  this  control  it  is  hoped 
to  develop  a  national  system  of  secondary  education  without 
interfering  with  the  freedom  of  the  individual  schools. 

While  elementary  education  in  England  and  Wales  is  now 
free  and  compulsory  for  children  from  the  age  of  seven  to 


BASEMENT    PLAN. 
FIG.     121.        CENTRAL    SCHOOL,     MANCHESTER,     ENGLAND. 

thirteen,  fees  are  charged  for  tuition  in  the  secondary  schools. 
The  policy  of  encouraging  pupils  to  seek  an  education  higher 
than  that  which  is  compulsory,  by  means  of  scholarships,  gen- 
erally obtains  in  England.  The  Technical  Education  Board 
of  London  gives  grants  to  nearly  fourteen  hundred  pupils  in 
the  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  by  which  tuition  and 
all  other  fees  are  paid  by  the  board  and  an  average  mainte- 
nance grant  of  £10  a  year  is  given. 

The  English  schools  of  the  secondary  type,  which  are  dis- 


170 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


tinctively  a  part  of  the  public  school  system,  are  the  higher 
grade  board  schools;  to  these  may  be  added  the  pupil-teach- 
ers' centers,  which  are  lower  grade  normal  schools. 

Of  the  former  class  an  important  example  is  the  Central 
School,  Manchester  (Figs.  119,  120,  121).  This  building  will 
accommodate  fourteen  hundred  and  fifty  pupils;  of  this  number 
reserve  classes  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  are  provided,  seven 
hundred  pupils  in  the  elementary  grades  and  five  hundred  in 
the  "  school  of  science  "  ;  i.  e.^  the  advanced  classes. 

In  the  basement  are  the  dining  rooms  where  hot  meals  are 
to  be  served  at  a  low  price,  a  feature  especially  desirable  in  a 
school  where  many  of  the  pupils  come  from  long  distances. 


CASSLAND    ROAD    HIGHER    GRADE    SCHOOL,    LONDON. 


many  traveling  to  town  by  train.  In  the  higher  grade  schools, 
also,  are  given  evening  courses  of  instruction,  and  for  such 
pupils  the  dining  room  is  a  convenience. 

The  basement  also  contains  the  cooking  and  laundry  schools, 
the  manual  training  room,  and  a  large  (50  by  63  ft.),  well- 
equipped  gymnasium.  The  manual  training  room  is  fitted 
with  forty  carpenter's  benches.  On  the  ground  floor  are  the 
hall,  the  class  room,  and  cloak  room  for  the  girls.  There  are, 
also,  three  reserve  class  rooms,  which  may,  in  the  future,  be 
utilized  as  a  pupil-teachers'  center,  or  for  junior  classes.  On 
this  fioor  is  a  library,  44  by  31  ft.     On  the  second  floor  is  the 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


171 


THIKU    FLOOR    FLAN. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     122.        CASSLAND    ROAD    HIGHER    GRADE    SCHOOL,     LONDON. 


172 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


fg;.*:- 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


173 


department  for  boys,  consisting  of  a  hall,  80  by  40  ft.,  running 
the  height  of  the  floor  and  with  open  timbered  roof. 

The  class  rooms  are  of  varying  sizes,  and  the  majority  have 
movable  partitions.  Adjoining  the  boys'  hall  is  a  room  of  the 
same  size  as  the  librar}',  which  is  used  for  administrative  pur- 
poses, a  portion  being  for  the  registrar  of  the  evening  school. 
On  the  second  floor  are  class  rooms  for  the  school  of  science, 
cloak  rooms,  and  the  art  room,  64  b}'^  34  ft.,  arranged  with 
desks  for  freehand  and  model  drawing.  On  this  floor  is 
the  caretaker's  apartments.  On  the  third  floor  is  a  chemical 
laboratory,  with  balance  room  and  store  room  adjoining. 
There  are  benches  for  forty  pupils.     The  main  ph^^sical  labora- 


FIG.     123. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
TECHNICAL    AND    SECONDARY    SCHOOL,     CHIPPENHAM,     ENGLAND. 


tory,  also,  with  accommodation  for  forty  pu}»ils,  adjoins  the 
science  master's  room  In  the  [_  are  the  chemical  and  physi- 
cal laboratories  for  the  advanced  classes.  The  chemical  and 
physical  lecture  rooms  are  in  the  main  body  of  the  building. 

One  of  the  forty-four  higher  grade  schools  operated  by  the 
London  School  Boaid  is  illustrated  by  the  Cassland  Road 
Higher  Grade  School  (Fig.  122).  This  building  is  equipped 
with  gymnasium,  laboratories,  lecture  rooms,  drawing  room, 
rooms  for  manual  training,  cooking,  etc.,  as  in  the  Manchester 
school    described   above,    and    has,   besides    modeling   room, 


174 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


PROPOSED    TECHNICAL    AND    SECONDARY    SCHOOL,    CHIPPENHAM,    ENGLAND. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     124,        FINSBURV    PUPIL-TEACHERs'    CENTER,     OKFORD    ROAU,     LONDON. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


175 


a  needlework  room  and  two  natural  science  laboratories. 
The  class  rooms  are  arranged  for  from  forty  to  fifty  pupils. 
Mezzanine  toilet  rooms,  accessible  from  staircase  landings, 
are  provided  on  each  floor. 

The  Dudley  New  Grammar  School,  although  not  a  second- 
ary public  school  in  the  American  sense,  furnishes  a  typical 
example  of  the  architectural  treatment  of  a  one-stor}'  English 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.       125.        FINSBURY    PUPIL-TEACHERS'    CENTER,     OFPORD    ROAD,     LONDON. 


school.     The  half-timbered  house  adjoining  the  school   is  the 
"  schoolhouse  "  or  master's  residence. 

The  Technical  and  Secondary  School,  Chippenham  (Fig. 
123),  is  t3'pically  illustrative  of  the  features  of  the  smaller 
English  secondary  schools  in  their  recent  development. 


176 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


The  influence  of  the  English  government  has  been  lately 
exerted  to  improve  and  systematize  the  education  of  pupil- 
teachers.  With  the  ceasing,  in  1861,  of  the  payment  by  the 
government  of  the  salaries  of  individual  teachers,  the  number 
of  pupil-teachers  on  the  staffs  began  to  be  reduced,  and  by 
successive  reduction  of  the  proportion  of  such  assistants,  per- 
mitted by  the  Board  of  Education,  at  present  but  two  pupil- 
teachers  are  permitted  for  the  principal  teacher,  and  one  for 
each  certified  teacher,  unless  the  pupil-teachers  are  taught  in 


FINSBURY    PUPIL-TEACHERS     CENTER,    OFFORD    ROAD,    LONDON. 

an  approved  "  center,"  when  two  are  allowed  for  each  certified 
assistant.  The  education  given  in  these  centers  is  analogous 
to  that  of  high  schools  in  America,  although  but  one  half  of 
the  pupil's  time  is  given  to  his  own  education  and  one  half  to 
the  teaching  of  younger  children. 

The  Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers'. Center,  Offord  Road  (Figs. 
124,  125),  illustrates  the  latest  and  most  complete  London  ex- 
ample of  its  class.     On  the  first  floor  are  four  class  rooms  for 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS.  1 77 

forty-two  and  thirty-six,  two  of  each,  seated  with  single  desks, 
a  central  hall,  50  ft.  6  ins.  by  ^;^  ft.  6  ins.  Mezzanine  toilet 
rooms,  as  in  the  Cassland  Road  School,  are  provided  in  this 
building. 

On  the  second  floor  are  four  class  rooms  and  a  gymnasium; 
on  the  upper  floor  is  an  art  room  over  the  gymnasium;  the 
remainder  of  this  floor  is  devoted  to  chemical  and  physical 
laboratories,  lecture  room,  balance  and  dark  rooms.  In  the 
basement  is  the  engineering  apparatus,  and  also  a  kitchen 
where  the  luncheon  is  prepared.  The  site  is  large  enough  to 
give  space  for  lawn  tennis  on  the  girls'  side  and  for  football  on 
the  boys'. 

The  Teutonic  secondary  schools  have  affected  but  slightly 
the  planning  of  English  schools  of  this  grade;  but  their  in- 
fluence has  been  marked  upon  the  plans  of  the  high  schools  of 
the  United  States,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  first  free  school  in  America  supported  by  public  funds 
was  the  Latin  School  of  Boston.  The  vote  establishing  it  was 
passed  at  town  meeting  on  the  2d  of  February,  1635,  five 
years  after  the  first  settlement.  The  Dutch  municipalities  had 
already  established  schools,  but  they  were  not  free.  The  Bos- 
ton Latin  School  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  the  germ  of 
the  modern  free  public  school  systems.  In  1645  the  Grammar 
School  of  Roxbury,  a  town  adjoining  Boston  and  now  a  part 
of  it,  was  established  by  the  citizens,  who  formally  pledged 
their  real  property  for  its  support.  Like  the  Boston  Latin, 
this  school  was  designed  to  prepare  pupils  for  Harvard  Col- 
lege. It  was  later  known  as  "  the  Free  School  in  Roxburie," 
and  is  now  called  the  Roxbury  Latin  School,  but  its  corporate 
name  is  "  the  Grammar  School  in  the  easterly  part  of  Rox- 
bury." Other  towns  followed  the  example  of  Boston  and  of 
Roxbury,  and  in  1647  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
passed  a  law  requiring  all  communities  of  one  hundred  fami- 
lies to  maintain  grammar  schools  to  fit  boys  for  college.  This 
law  was  not  fully  successful,  for  the  towns  did  not  accept  the 
obligation  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  there  was  a  consider- 
able period  when  most  of  these  grammar  schools  were  well- 
nigh  extinct. 

To  supply  the  lack  of  public  grammar  schools,  privately  en- 
dowed academies  began  to  be  established.  Dummer  Acad- 
emy, founded  in  1763  by  Lieutenant-Governor  Dummer,  was 
the  first  of  these.  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  followed  in 
1768,  and  soon  there  was  an  academy  in  nearly  every  con- 
siderable town.  The  academies,  like  the  earlier  grammar 
schools,  had  the  primary  object  of  preparation  for  college. 
With  the  creation,  in  1837,  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board 
of  Education,  the  scope  of  public  education  was  broadened  by 

.78 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


179 


i8o 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  establishment  of  schools  for  those  who  did  not  intend  to 
go  to  college.  These  were  the  modern  high  schools,  in  which 
classical  studies  are  not  required  and  usually  are  not  taught. 
The  first  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  was  Horace 
Mann,  and  to  him  is  to  be  credited  much  of  the  extension  and 
improvement  of  secondary  education  in  the  United  States. 

The  early  grammar  schools  and  the  later  academies  had 
been  conducted  on  the  English  system,  —  that  is,  the  pupils  of 
several  classes  were  congregated  in  large  schoolrooms,  in 
which  some  of  the  classes  recited  while   other  pupils  were 


ENGLISH    HIGH    AND    LATIN    SCHOOL,    BOSTON. 
George  A.  Clough,  Architect. 

busy  with  their  studies,  and  from  these  rooms  some  passed  to 
other  rooms  for  recitation  in  special  subjects.  When  the  high 
schools  were  established  they  followed  the  system  of  the 
academies,  which  they  superseded  in  many  cases. 

The  English  High  and  Latin  School,  of  Boston,  Mass.  (Fig. 
126),  begun  in  1877,  is  important  in  the  development  of  school 
architecture  in  the  United  States.  It  was  the  first  example  in 
that  country  of  a  scientifically  planned  and  architecturally  ex- 
pressed school.  The  report  on  this  building  by  Mr.  John  D. 
Philbrick,  at  that  time  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  Boston, 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


i8i 


152  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

shows  that  the  features  of  this  building  were  in  the  main  sug- 
gested by  the  Akademische  Gymnasium  in  Vienna  (Fig.  127). 
Mr.  Philbrick's  report  goes  on  to  say  that  "  the  cit}^  of  Vienna 
has  individual  school  buildings  vastly  better  than  the  best  in 
Boston;  but  if  you  take  all  the  school  buildings  in  Vienna,  the 
good  and  bad  together,  the  average  accommodations  afforded 
to  all  the  children  of  the  cit}^  are  perhaps  not  equal  to  the 
average  of  the  accommodations  provided  for  the  children  in 
Boston.  Vienna  knows  how  to  build,  and  has  built  school 
edifices  which  are  more  endurable,  more  safe,  more  conve- 
nient, more  costly,  and  more  beautiful  than  any  Boston  has  yet 
built,  or  is  likely  to  build  in  the  near  future.  The  reason  of 
this  is,  that  in  Vienna  when  a  schoolhouse  is  planned  it  is 
done  by  the  combined  science  and  wisdom  of  the  most  ac- 
complished architects  and  the  most  accomplished  pedagogists. 
No  mere  whim  of  a  schoolmaster  and  no  mere  whim  of  an 
inexperienced  and  uneducated  architect  is  allowed  to  control 
the  design. 

"  In  its  general  arrangements  the  block  plan  of  the  English 
High  and  Latin  School  consists  of  a  parallelogram  423  ft.  long 
by  220  ft.  wide,  the  longest  sides,  or  main  buildings,  fronting 
on  Warren  Avenue  and  Montgomery  Street,  the  Latin  School 
occupying  the  former,  and  the  English  High  School  the 
latter. 

"  There  are  two  courts  within  this  block,  of  equal  size,  the 
division  between  the  two  being  made  by  the  location  of  a  cen- 
tral building,  which  is  connected  with  the  two  main  street 
fronts  by  a  transverse  corridor. 

"  Across  the  easterly  end  of  the  block  and  connecting  its 
two  sides  are  located  the  drill  hall  and  gymnasium;  and  across 
the  westerly  end,  fronting  on  Dartmouth  Street,  a  building,  as 
shown  on  the  plan,  is  proposed  to  be  erected  hereafter  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  school  board  and  its  officers. 

"  Each  of  the  street  fronts  of  the  main  buildings  is  divided 
into  three  pavilions.  The  main  buildings  have  three  stories 
and  a  basement,  the  latter  being  a  clearstory  facing  the  courts. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS.  1 83 

There  is  in  the  central  portion  an  entrance  from  either  street, 
and  two  in  each  main  building  at  the  terminations  of  the  longi- 
tudinal corridor,  one  being  in  each  end  pavilion. 

"  There  are  eight  staircases,  one  in  each  end  pavilion,  con- 
necting with  the  entrances  at  the  terminations  of  the  longitu- 
dinal corridors,  and  two  in  each  of  the  central  pavilions,  right 
and  left  of  the  grand  entrances,  respectively. 

'"The  drill  hall  is  on  the  street  level.  It  is  130  ft.  long  on 
the  floor,  62  ft.  wide,  and  30  ft.  high;  above  the  galleries, 
which  are  at  the  ends,  it  is  160  ft.  long.  The  seating  capacity 
of  floor  and  galleries  is  sufficient  for  twenty-five  hundred 
persons.  In  connection  with  the  drill  hall  there  are  two  rooms 
for  the  military  officers,  and  an  armorer's  room. 

"  There  are  forty-eight  schoolrooms,  twenty  being  on  the 
first  and  second  floors,  respectively,  and  eight  on  the  third 
floor;  twelve  receive  their  light  from  the  courts,  the  remain- 
ing thirty-six  occupy  the  street  fronts.  The  typical  school- 
room of  this  building  is  intended  for  thirty-five  pupils,  but  will 
accommodate  forty  or  more,  according  to  the  mode  of  seating 
and  the  size  of  the  pupils.  It  is  32  ft.  long,  24  ft.  wide,  and 
14  ft.  high.  It  is  lighted  by  four  windows,  9  ft.,  6  ins.  by 
4  ft.,  6  ins.,  placed  on  the  longer  side  6  ins.  from  the  ceiling 
and  4  ft.  from  the  floor,  and  equally  spaced,  with  transom 
sashes  hung  above  the  sliding  sashes.  It  has,  on  the  side 
opposite  the  windows,  two  doors  opening  from  the  corridor; 
over  the  doors  are  top  lights  for  ventilation,  and  between  them 
two  high  lights  hung  on  hinges.  The  pupils  face  the  platform 
at  one  end  of  the  room,  and  receive  the  light  on  their  left. 
Under  the  windows  are  cabinets  for  coats  and  caps,  there 
being  no  separate  rooms  for  this  purpose.  There  is  a  closet 
sunk  into  the  end  wall  for  a  teacher's  wardrobe. 

"  The  assembly  halls  are  on  the  third  floor  in  the  central 
pavilions,  are  82  ft.  long,  62  ft.  wide,  and  25  ft.  high,  each 
having  a  seating  capacity  for  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pupils, 
with  the  amphitheater  arrangement. 

"  The  library  rooms  are  on   the  first  floor,  on  the  right  and 


184  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

left  from  the  transverse  corridor  in  the  central  building,  each 
being  54  ft.  long  and  32  ft.  wide. 

"  Over  the  libraries,  and  of  the  same  size  and  shape,  on  the 
second  floor  are  the  lecture  halls  for  the  natural  sciences. 
Each  of  these  has  two  connected  rooms,  —  one  for  physical 
apparatus,  and  the  other  for  specimens  of  natural  history. 

"  Near  the  principal  entrances,  on  the  first  floor  in  the  cen- 
tral building,  there  are,  for  each  school,  a  teacher's  conference 
room,  with  an  adjoining  reception  room,  a  head  master's  office, 
and  a  janitor's  room;  on  the  second  floor,  adjacent  to  the 
transverse  corridor,  are  two  suites  of  apartments,  each  having 
four  rooms  for  janitors'  dwellings,  each  suite  being  connected 
with  the  basement  by  a  separate  staircase. 

"  There  are  two  drawing  rooms  for  each  school  on  the  third 
floor,  both  having  sidelights  and  skylights;  at  either  end  is  a 
room  for  the  models  and  copies. 

"  In  the  central  pavilions,  on  each  floor,  are  dressing  rooms 
for  the  teachers.  The  water-closets  and  urinals  for  the  pupils 
are  located  in  four  sections  winged  out  from  the  principal 
staircases  in  the  central  pavilions,  and  are  arranged  in  tiers, 
there  being  two  stories  of  closets  to  each  story  of  the  build- 
ing, one  of  which  is  entered  at  the  corridor  level,  and  the 
other  from  the  half  landing  of  the  staircase  above.  There  are 
six  of  these  tiers  in  each  section,  which  are  connected  by  a 
spiral  staircase  in  a  round  tower  at  the  exterior  angle,*  running 
from  the  basement  to  the  roof  of  the  building,  the  top  of  which 
is  surmounted  by  a  large  ventilator.  By  other  means,  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  closets  are  completely  ventilated. 

"  The  basement,  besides  the  space  necessary  for  the  steam 
boilers  and  the  storage  of  fuel,  affords  a  covered  playground 
for  the  pupils. 

"  A  part  of  the  English  High  School  basement  has  been 
fitted  for  the  occupancy  of  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Public 
Library.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  one  or  two  of  the  basement 
rooms  may  be  utilized  as  a  refectory,  where  the  pupils  may 
obtain  a  wholesome  lunch  at  a  moderate  price. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS.  1 85 

"  No  chemical  laboratory  was  supposed  to  be  needed  by  the 
Latin  School, and  hence  none  has  been  provided;  but  the  pro- 
visions for  the  instruction  in  chemistry  on  the  English  High 
School  side  are  believed  to  be  as  near  perfection  as  has  yet 
been  reached,  having  regard  to  the  objects  and  grade  of  the 
institution.  The  portion  of  the  block  appropriated  to  this 
purpose  is  architecturally  a  detached  building  located 
at  the  east  end  of  the  high  school  building  and  facing 
Montgomery  Street,  and  between  it  and  the  southerly  end 
of  the  drill  hall,  being  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  edifice 
by  fire-proof  walls,  as  far  as  convenience  of  access  would 
allow. 

"The  lower  floor  is  occupied  by  a  lecture  room  35  by  40 
ft.,  and  capable  of  seating  about  one  hundred  pupils.  The 
room  is  constructed  with  rapidly  rising  tiers  of  benches,  and 
is  fitted  with  a  lecture  desk  and  the  ordinary  appliances  of 
a  chemical  lecture  room. 

"  On  the  second  floor  are  the  laboratory  and  accessory 
rooms.  The  former  is  of  a  general  rectangular  shape  35  by 
30  ft.,  with  an  alcove  27  by  7  ft. 

"  Connecting  with  the  laboratory  are  two  small  rooms:  one 
is  for  storage  of  apparatus,  and  can  be  darkened  for  spectro- 
scopic experiments;  the  other  is  a  preparing  room,  but  is 
fitted  with  working  desks  and  drawers,  and  is  used  also  as  a 
storeroom  for  chemicals. 

"  Practically  the  buildings  are  fire-proof  throughout.  The 
corridors  are  all  constructed  with  iron  beams  and  brick  arches, 
and  laid  with  a  finished  floor  of  black  and  white  square  Italian 
marble  tiles.  The  under  sides  of  the  arches  over  the  corridors 
are  plastered  upon  the  bricks,  and  the  beams  covered  with  a 
heavy  coating  of  Keene's  cement. upon  wire  network,  these 
corridors  in  themselves  dividing  the  whole  block  into  four 
fire-proof  sections.  The  several  apartments  are  separated  by 
brick  walls,  and  all  the  floors  and  the  spaces  between  the  fur- 
ring upon  the  walls  are  filled  with  fire-proofing.  The  stair- 
cases are  wrought  ironwork." 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS.  187 

The  objections  to  the  method  of  clothing  disposal  provided 
in  this  building  are  obvious. 

The  heating  and  ventilating  system  of  the  Boston  English 
High  and  Latin  School  is  much  less  satisfactory  than  in  later 
schools.  In  fact,  the  system  of  ventilating  is  absolutel}^  the 
reverse  of  that  in  use  at  the  present  day.  The  air  is  now 
made  to  pass  from  the  corridor  to  the  rooms.  In  the  English 
High  and  Latin  School  the  passage  of  air  is  from  the  rooms  to 
the  corridor.  The  heating  is  by  the  indirect  "  natural  "  system 
with  gravit}^  ventilation.  The  objection  to  this  method  of 
heating  large  schools  is  now  usually  accepted.  In  this  build- 
ing a  supply  of  but  8  cu.  ft.  per  minute  for  each  pupil  was 
contemplated.  To-day  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  require  at 
least  30  cu.  ft.  per  minute  for  each  pupil.  This  requirement 
of  air  delivery  marks  the  notable  progress  made  in  the  heating 
and  ventilation  of  American  schools  in  a  generation,  for  it 
should  be  remembered  that  this  building  was  generally  con- 
sidered, at  the  time  when  it  was  built,  to  be  the  most  perfect 
in  all  respects  of  any  school  in  the  United  States. 

The  adoption  of  the  gymnasium  type  with  its  separate 
graded  class  rooms  for  this  Boston  school,  and  the  acceptance 
(jf  characteristics  of  its  plan  in  other  high  school  buildings, 
appears  to  have  had  influence  in  so  changing  the  system  of 
secondary  instruction  that  the  American  high  school,  in  its 
plan  and  arrangement,  became  generally  little  more  than  an 
elaborate  development  of  the  graded  grammar  school.  It  is 
now  usual  in  high  schools,  constructed  during  the  past  twenty 
years  or  more,  to  find  "  wardrobes  "  adjoining  each  school- 
room,—  a  feature  derived  from  the  necessities  of  the  primary 
and  grammar  school  discipline,  and  not  in  harmony  with  the 
freer  spirit  which  should  characterize  the  secondar}^  schools. 
Separate  rooms  for  each  class,  and  no  large  study  or  school- 
room for  two  or  more  classes,  are  provided. 

A  marked  example  of  the  effect  of  this  Boston  school 
building  upon  the  American  high  school  type  is  the  Cam- 
bridge  High  School  (Fig.  128),  built  in   1887.     The  plan  of 


i88 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     128.       ENGLISH    HIGH   SCHOOL,    CAMBRIDGE,    MASS. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


189 


this  school  differs  in  nothing  from  that  of  a  highly  developed 
modern  American  grammar  school,  except  that  its  class  rooms 
are  28  by  40  ft.,  and  are  not,  as  in  grammar  schools,  28  by  32 
ft.  Neither  the  Brookline  High  School,  begun  in  1894,  nor 
the  Cambridge  Latin  School,  begun  about  1897,  is  in  these 


PRINCIPAL   ENTRANCE    OF    ENGLISH    HIGH    SCHOOL,    CAMBRIDGE,    MASS, 

main  features  especially  characteristic  of  a  secondary  school, 
except  for  the  greater  dimensions  of  the  class  rooms.  Any 
one  of  them  could  as  well  be  used  for  a  graded  grammar 
school  as  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed. 

A  notable  feature  of  the  plan  of  the  Cambridge  High  School 


190  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

is  the  "  emergency "  or  "  hospital "  room  for  use  in  case  of 
sudden  illness.  These  rooms,  which  are  provided  inore  es- 
pecially for  the  girl  pupils,  have  been  generally  provided  in  the 
best-equipped  high  schools  built  since  the  construction  of  this 
Cambridge  school.  In  this  school  a  lunch  room  is  also  pro- 
vided. The  office  of  the  head  master,  the  library,  and  the 
office  of  the  secretary  of  the  board  are  placed  in  conjunction, 
and  all  these  rooms  are  arranged  for  library  purposes.  The 
books  are  all  placed  on  open  shelves,  and  the  free  use  of  the 
library  by  the  pupils  is  encouraged.  The  library  not  only  is 
used  as  a  place  for  study,  but  is  sufficiently  large  to  serve  at 
the  same  time  for  a  recitation  room  for  advanced  classes. 

In  his  report  the  head  master  of  the  school  gives  the  follow- 
ing description  of  the  laboratory  accommodations:  — 

"  I.  A  physical  laboratory,  with  a  demonstration  table  for 
the  teacher,  chairs  with  writing-arm  attachments  for  a  class 
when  seated,  tables  with  supports  for  apparatus  and  lockers 
for  storage,  side  tables  with  gas  and  water. 

"  2.  A  smaller  connecting  room,  with  shelves  and  cases  for 
such  physical  apparatus  as  the  pupils  personally  use,  and  a 
working  table  for  the  teacher  and  for  advanced  pupils  or 
special  students.  ' 

"  3.  A  chemical  laboratory  with  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  lockers,  so  that  each  pupil  may  have  his  own  equipment 
and  be  held  responsible  for  its  care.  The  room  contains  a 
chemical  hood  where,  a  dozen  pupils  may  work  at  once  with 
noxious  gases;  also  shelves  for  the  storage  of  such  supplies  as 
are  in  daily  or  frequent  use. 

"  4.  A  smaller  connecting  room,  with  shelves  and  cases  for 
supplies,  books,  balances,  and  the  various  materials  used  in 
chemical  study.  This  room  contains  a  table  supplied  with  gas 
and  water,  and  is  intended  for  the  use  of  the  teacher  or  of 
special  students  under  the  teacher's  immediate  guidance. 

"  5.  A  small,  dark  room,  with  sink,  shelves,  gas,  and  elec- 
tric lamps  for  photographic  purposes. 

"  6.  A  large  lecture  room  with  a  raised  floor,  and  chairs  for 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


191 


I 


PmTSiPA*.  l,.A&OI\ATpRie> 


I  APPA«AT«5 


UTATIoSl  ^  W-L.     -Ll 


JX. 


■n    ■  MIM  I  I     11    !■    I     I-    11    ■  ■  ^  Jfc^ji— ■ 

CMenitALLABORATORlEJ     |  —         »\»»  in    -ar, 

a:^3  rn     1  Jl  1 1  rf±: 

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1 .1     II 


4«'«i8' 


SECOND    KI.OOK    PLAN. 


THIRD    FLOOR    PLAN. 


BASEMENT   PLAN.  FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     129.        LATIN    SCHOOL,    CAMBRIDGE,    MASS. 


192 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pupils,  each  chair 
having  a  shelf  to  facilitate  the  taking  of  notes.  Here  the 
teacher  of  physics  or  chemistry,  or,  in  fact,  of  any  subject,  may 
assemble  pupils  in  larger  numbers  than  usual  for  talks,  lectures, 
and  such  experiments  as  are  better  performed  for  the  pupils 
than  by  them.  This  room  contains  closets  for  storage,  cases 
for  lecture  table  apparatus,  a  well-appointed  demonstration 
table,  a  stereopticon  screen,  and  a  porte-lumiere.  Its  windows 
may  be  darkened  at  short  notice.  This  room,  as  well  as  the 
five  rooms  just  described,  is  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water. 
"  In  addition  to  the  six  rooms  already  described,  there  is  a 
botanical  room,  with  drawers  for  the  school  herbarium,  cases 


LATIN    SCHOOL,    CAMBRIDGE,    MASS. 
Hartwell,  Richardson  &  Driver,  Architects. 

for  botanical  specimens,  window  shelves  for  plants  and  water; 
also  a  mineralogical  room  and  a  spacious  drawing  room,  the 
latter  to  receive  the  tables,  models,  screens,  and  other  equip- 
ment of  the  evenino^  drawingr  school." 

The  Latin  School  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  (Fig.  129),  demon- 
strates that  a  plan  in  the  form  of  a  letter  |-j  gives  a  better 
opportunity  for  thoroughly  lighting  the  wide  American  school- 
rooms than  is  afforded  by  the  courtyard  type.  For  the  proper 
lighting  of  a  schoolroom  28  ft.  wide  with  the  customary  height 
of  ceiling,  it  is  essential  to  have  windows  on  both  sides.     The 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


194  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

letter  |-|  plan  gives  eight  of  these  instead  of  four,  as  in  the 
courtyard  plan;  and,  further,  it  makes  the  assembly  hall  a 
much  more  cheerful  and  dignified  room  than  is  permitted  by 
the  courtyard  plan,  when  this  hall  is  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  courtyard.  This  building  shows  coat  rooms  adjacent  to 
the  class  rooms,  but  less  absolutely  conforming  to  the  "  ward- 
robe "  arrangement  of  graded  schools  than  in  the  case  of  the 
high  school  described  above.  The  width  of  30  ft.  is  given  to 
some  of  the  class  rooms  lighted  from  one  side  only,  while 
rooms  on  the  corner,  lighted  from  two  sides,  are  given  a  width 
of  28  ft. 

The  High  School  at  Brookline,  Mass.  (Fig.  130),  follows 
the  method  generally  employed  in  German  schools  in  having 
no  windows  in  the  walls  facing  the  teacher's  desk.  In  this 
school  toilet  rooms  are  arranged  in  two  tiers  for  each  story, 
as  in  the  English  High  and  Latin  of  Boston.  The  plan  of 
this  building  provides  for  two  conveniences  which,  though 
novel  at  the  time,  have  since  become  almost  universal  in  large 
high  schools,  —  a  bicycle  run  to  the  basement,  and  a  storage 
room  for  bicycles.  Here,  too,  the  lunch  room  is  no  longer 
the  makeshift  that  it  was  in  earlier  schools,  but,  as  is  now 
customary  in  high  schools,  a  carefully  considered  requirement 
of  the  building.  This  school,  like  the  Cambridge  High  and 
the  Cambridge  Latin,  has  the  pupils'  outside  clothing  hung 
adjacent  to  the  class  room,  after  the  fashion  of  the  grammar 
schools;  but  in  this  case  the  clothing  is  not  in  a  separate 
enclosure,  but  is  simply  alcoved  off  the  corridor. 

Fig.  131  gives  plans  of  a  high  school  designed  for  Pawtucket, 
R.  I.,  in  which  in  the  portion  of  the  wall  directly  opposite  the 
teacher's  desk  the  window  is  omitted. 

The  High  School  at  Springfield,  Mass.  (Figs.  132,  133), 
has  several  large  schoolrooms  like  those  in  the  American 
normal  schools  and  in  the  earlier  academies.  As  originally 
designed,  the  building  was  larger,  and  at  the  same  time  more 
simple  in  plan,  than  the  present  structure.  It  was  to  have 
accommodated  one  thousand  pupils.      The  assembly  hall  was 


196 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


197 


198 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


199 


in  the  center  upon  the  first  floor,  as  in  the  present  build- 
ing, but  the  class  rooms  were  grouped  around  this  hall,  form- 
ing four  sides  of  a  rectangle  instead  of  three,  as  at  present. 
The  commission  in  charge  of  the  construction  decided  to 
reduce  the  number  to  be  accommodated  to  eight  hundred, 
to  arrange  the  building  so  that  the  hall  could  be  conve- 
niently used  for  other  than  school  purposes,  and  to  give  the 
whole  a  somewhat  more  monumental  and  costly  exterior 
than  was  first  intended.  The  result  was  the  building  as  now 
shown.     Its  faults  as  a  monumental  plan  are   clearly  recog- 


HIGH    SCHOOL,    SPRINGFIELD,    MASS. 
Hartwell,  Richardson  &  Driver,  Architects. 


nized  by  its  designers;  its  merits  as  a  practical  school  plan, 
with  the  special  conditions  imposed  borne  in  mind,  are  evi- 
dent to  all  conversant  with  such  work. 

The  basement  contains  a  large  lunch  room,  an  aquarium, 
bicycle  rooms,  toilet  rooms,  battery  and  storage  rooms,  and  a 
room  for  the  girls'  gymnasium.  The  boilers  for  heating  are 
located  outside  the  buildinof. 


200 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


202  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Upon  the  principal  floor  is  the  assembly  hall,  occupying  the 
center  of  the  plan.  This  is  approached  from  the  principal  en- 
trance, and  through  the  corridor  opposite;  also  by  a  broad 
iron  staircase,  by  means  of  which  an  audience  may  pass  out 
upon  the  west  side  and  down  to  the  level  of  the  grade  surface 
between  this  and  the  old  high  school  building,  which  still  re- 
mains standing  a  short  distance  away.  To  the  right  and  left 
of  the  main  entrance  are  the  office  and  the  private  reception 
room  of  the  principal,  the  office  of  the  secretary,  and  a  room 
for  the  delivery  of  stationery  and  a  limited  number  of  books. 
Eight  class  rooins  and  four  recitation  rooms  are  also  upon  this 
floor. 

A  broad,  covered  passageway  crossing  by  the  west  side  of 
the  hall,  from  which  exit  is  made  to  the  staircase  previously 
mentioned,  provides  a  thoroughfare  between  the  front  and 
rear  portions  of  the  building,  which  would  otherwise  have  re- 
mained disconnected  by  the  removal  of  this  section  of  the 
orio^inal  rectanjjle.  Similar  connection  is  made  in  the  second 
story,  but  in  this  case  the  passage  becomes  a  loggia,  from 
which  in  passing  one  looks  down  into  the  hall  below. 

The  plan  of  the  second  story  is  much  like  the  first,  except 
that  immediately  over  the  main  entrance  is  the  library. 
Drawing  rooms,  laboratories,  and  physical  lecture  room,  with 
large  storage  rooms  for  apparatus,  occupy  the  third  story, 
while  a  12-ft.  copper  dome,  projecting  into  an  inner  light 
well,  is  used  as  an  astronomical  observatory.  This  dome  is 
so  placed  as  to  be  invisible  from  the  ground  level,  except  at  a 
very  remote  distance,  and  does  not  essentially  affect  the  archi- 
tectural expression  of  the  building. 

The  High  School  at  Newark,  N.J.  (Fig.  134),  is  similar  to 
the  Springfield  High  School  in  having  the  interior  lighted  by 
courts,  and  the  assembly  hall  placed  within,  gaining  its  main 
light  from  the  ceiling.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  New- 
ark school  is  patterned  after  the  continental  schools,  not  only 
in  its  general  plan,  but  also  in  its  method  of  lighting  the  class 
rooms  entirety  from  one  side.     In  the  Springfield  school  the 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


203 


/Vs>s--~tv   H>.L\.        «• 


©•«•»    Coi/rr 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


THIRD  FLOOR  PLAN. 


BASEMENT  PLAN. 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN. 


FIG.     135.        HIGH    SCHOOL,     NEW    BRITAIN,     CONN. 
W.  C.  Brocklesby,  Architect. 


204 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


BASEMENT    PLAN. 
FIG.     136.        GROTON    SCHOOL. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


205 


clothing  is  hung  in  alcoves  off  the  corridors;  in  the  Newark 
school  some  cloak  rooms  are  in  the  basement,  following  in 
this  the  method  found  in  the  latest  American  high  schools. 
In  addition  to  these  basement  cloak  rooms  there  is  adjoining 
each  class  room  a  wardrobe,  provided  with  two  doors  from 
the  class  room,  but  with  no  door  from  the  corridor.  Each  of 
these  wardrobes  has  outside  light. 

The    High    School   at  New  Britain,  Conn.    (Fig.   135),  is 
a  compactly  planned  building  arranged  about  a  central  light 


rrt 


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UPPER  i'PARf  OF  ■! 


ROOF 


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dbt-. 


SECOND   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIC;.     137.        GROTON    SCHOOL. 


area.  The  cloak  rooms  are  placed  upon  each  story,  but  the}- 
do  not  follow  the  grammar  grade  method  of  separate  ward- 
robes adjoining  each  class  room.  The  gj-mnasium  has  a  run- 
ning track  in  the  gallery  served  by  two  staircases.  Lockers 
for  both  sexes,  receiving  light  from  the  central  area,  adjoin 
the  gymnasium. 


r' 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


208 


SCHOOT.    ARCHITECTURE. 


O   ^ 
en   ,s 

C    J! 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


209 


The  Groton  School  (Figs.  136,  137),  whicn  has  been  re- 
cently built,  illustrates  a  marked  return  to  the  academic  type 
of  the  large  schoolroom  with  subsidiary  recitation  rooms. 
This  result  has  come  from  the  union  of  English  and  American 
secondar}'  school  arrangements  of  the  present  day,  and  it  was 
not   intended  as  a  revival  of  the  New  England  academy  type. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     140.       girls'    high    school,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


The  Groton  School  is  a  private  institution,  and  hence  not 
t3'pical  of  the  class  of  buildings  here  considered;  but  it  serves 
to  illustrate  a  tendency  which  appears  in  later  secondary 
schools  of  the  United  States  to  revert  to  the  academy  type. 
In  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  of  Boston,  begun  in  1893, 
the  first  tendency  was  shown  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 


2IO 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


States  to  differentiate  the  high  from  the  grammar  school  type. 
This  appears  not  in  the  introduction  of  manual  training  as 
complementary  to  the  usual  mental  training,  but  in  the  pro- 
vision of  schoolrooms  seating  seventy  or  more  pupils,  instead 
of  rooms  for  graded  classes,  and  of  large  locker  rooms  for 
general  use,  instead  of  wardrobes  adjoining  each  class  room. 


LECTURE 
Roon 


H  iiiii  lip 
CLA55 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     141.        girls'    high    school,     NEW    YORK    CITY. 

Lockers  for  clothing  were  later  used  in  the  Brighton  High 
School,  Boston  (Fig.  138),  and  are  adopted  in  the  designs  of 
several  new  high  school  buildings  which  are  being  built  in 
Boston,  among  them  the  South  Boston  High  School  (Fig. 
139).  This  school  is  also  provided  with  large  schoolrooms 
for  two  classes. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS. 


211 


The  Girls'  High  School,  New  York  City  (Figs.  140,  141), 
and  the  Central  High  School  at  Toledo,  Ohio  (Fig.  142), 
show  similar  developments  of  the  plan  in  respect  to  the  use 
of  large  general  study  or  schoolrooms;  the  former,  also,  has 
the  general  cloak  room  for  the  pupils'  clothing. 

This  provision  for  clothing  permits  more  economical  plan- 
ning than  the  arrangement  of  separate  wardrobes  for  each 
room.  When  individual  lockers  are  provided,  as  was  first 
done  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  this  arrangement  is  found  to  be  en- 


GIRLS     HIGH    SCHOOL,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 
C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect. 

tirely  unobjectionable,  and  it  appears  to  be  that  most  desirable 
for  high  school  pupils. 

The  lockers  are  made  of  wood;  the  upper  and  lower  panels 
of  the  doors,  the  bottoms  of  the  lockers,  and  sometimes  the 
tops  are  of  strong  wire  netting.  If  it  is  necessary  to  econo- 
mize space,  the  floor  area  of  each  locker  need  not  exceed  16 
by  16  ins.;  and  it  would  seem  feasible,  if  closer  arrangement 
were  found  to  be  necessary,  to  arrange  the  lockers  in  two 
tiers,  with  access  given  to  the  upper  tier  by  a  ladder  running 


212 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


on  a  track,  —  an  expedient  sometimes  used  to  reach  the  upper 
shelves  of  a  high  bookcase.  The  lockers  may  be  furnished 
with  inexpensive  combination  locks,  in  which  case  the  janitor 
keeps  the  record  of  the  combination;  or  each  pupil  maybe 
provided  with  a  key,  the  janitor  having  a  master  key.  The 
room  in  which  the  lockers  are  placed  should  be  sunn}-,  if 
possible,  and  it  should  be  strongly  ventilated.  It  is  better  to 
have  the  room  ventilated  through  the  lockers  than  to  have 
the  lockers  ventilated  through  the  rooms. 


h    ■    »    ■   ii|     m    f    m   JfSi 


m 


ASSEMBLY  HAUL 


FIG.     142. 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

CENTRAL  HIGH  SCHOOL,  TOLEDO,  OHIO. 


The  following  considerations,  which  are  of  especial  applica- 
tion to  high  schools,  should  be  recognized  in  planning  such 
buildings.  The  library  may  be  given  a  northerly  exposure. 
Drawing  rooms  should  have  a  northern  light.  Ph3^sical 
laboratories  require  one  wall  with  exposure  to  the  sunlight. 
The  room  for  storage  of  ph3'sical  apparatus  should  be  made 
as  secure  from  the  admission  of  dust  as  is  possible. 

High  school  desks  are  20  by  26  ins.,  the  space  from  the  front 
of  the  desks  to  back  of  the  seats  is  36  ins.*  the  aisles  between 
desks  are  20  ins.  wide. 


214 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


The  plans  of  schools  of  this  grade  have  not  been  affected 
to  the  same  extent  by  rigid  system  as  have  those  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  the  United  States;  and  from  the  experi- 
ments on  the  former  type  of  building  we  may  expect  to 
derive  the  greatest  advance  in  school  planning,  especially  in 
the  manner  of  lighting.     It  is  mainly  in  high  schools  that  the 


CLASS    ROOM    FOR    SIXTY-THREE    HIGH    SCHOOL    PUPILS. 


continental  method  of  excluding  windows  immediately  in  the 
face  of  the  teacher  is  seen.  The  advantages  of  this  arrange- 
ment may  prove  so  evident  in  these  schools  as  to  lead  to  its 
general  adoption  in  our  elementary  schools;  and  when  this  is 
accomplished,  there  will  come,  of  necessity,  narrower  class 
rooms  with  a  smaller  number  of  pupils  under  each  teacher. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MANUAL    TRAINING    AND    MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOLS. 

The  schools  in  which  courses  in  mechanical  training  are 
given  in  conjunction  with  the  principal  high  school  studies 
are  known  either  as  "  manual  training,"  or  as  "  mechanic 
arts"  high  schools.  The  courses  in  these  schools  are  designed 
to  develop  manual  skill,  but  not  to  teach  trades.  Intellectual 
activity  is  encouraged  both  by  the  study  of  books,  and  of  tools, 
materials,  and  mechanical  processes.  Manual  training  is  but 
one  factor  of  the  instruction  given,  and  such  training  is  used 
as  a  means  to  an  end,  'not  as  an  end  in  itself.  "  Mechanic 
arts  high"  is  a  clumsy  term,  but  it  closely  designates  the  pur- 
pose of  such  schools;  while  the  name  "  manual  training"  sug- 
gests too  narrow  limitations,  and  confuses  the  purpose  with 
that  of  the  technical  or  trade  schools  whose  object  is  purely 
utilitarian.  It  is  probable  that  courses  in  the  mechanic  arts 
will  soon  be  so  common  in  non-classical  secondar}'  schools 
that  no  further  distinguishing  term  than  "  high  school  "  will 
be  necessary. 

Schools  of  this  grade  are  provided  with  the  class  rooms, 
recitation  rooms,  laboratories,  and  drawing  rooms  of  high 
schools,  but  they  are  further  provided  with  rooms  equipped 
with  the  necessary  benches,  tools,  and  machinery  for  teaching 
the  elements  of  carpentry,  wood-carving,  turning,  forging,  and 
machine-shop  practise.  Drawing  rooms  are  more  important 
features  than  in  other  high  schools,  and  in  some  cases  molding 
and  clay  modeling  rooms  are  furnished. 

The  buildings  are  the  latest  and  most  complex  development 
of  the  American  secondary  schools,  and,  consequently,  they 
have  not  yet  been  perfected  in  all  their  features.  But  few 
schools  of  the  class  wholly  designed  for  the  purpose  have, 
as  yet,  been  built;  and  foreign  countries,  although  industrial 
training  has  been  longer  established   and  is  more  general  in 


2l6  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

northern  Europe  and  in  England  than  in  the  United  States, 
offer  suggestions  of  future  rather  than  immediate  models.  The 
secondary  schools  of  this  nature  in  England  and  Europe  are 
generally  designed  to  teach  trades,  although  in  England  the 
tendency  is  towards  making  the  courses  more  educational 
than  formerly  and  hence  these  English  and  American  schools 
have  certain  features  in  common.  At  St.  Louis,  Chicago, 
Cambridge,  Boston,  and  Toledo  especially  designed  schools 
of  this  class  have  been  built.  In  many  cases  existing  build- 
ings, as  in  the  first  school  of  this  class  at  Toledo,  have  been 
adapted  by  alterations  or  additions  to  meet  the  needs  of  this 
kind  of  instruction. 

The  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School  (Fig.  143)  vv^as 
built  partly  in  1879  and  partly  in  1882,  at  a  time  when  there 
was  no  American  precedent  to  guide  its  projectors.  On  the 
third  floor  of  this  building  are  the  first-year  schoolroom,  fitted 
with  ninety-six  desks,  two  recitation  rooms,  each  fitted  with 
twenty-four  shelf  chairs,  a  drawing  room,  a  physical  labora- 
tory, and  one  wood-working  room,  with  benches  for  twenty 
pupils. 

On  the  second  floor  is  the  second-year  schoolroom,  with 
eighty-eight  desks,  this  class  being  composed  of  four  divisions 
of  twenty-two  pupils  each.  Here,  also,  are  a  wood-working 
room,  with  twenty-four  benches  and  twenty-four  turning 
lathes,  a  molding  and  soldering  room  with  twenty-four 
benches,  and  a  drawing  room. 

In  the  first  story  are  the  office  of  the  principal,  the  third- 
year  schoolroom,  with  sixty-three  desks,  and  the  forging  shop, 
with  twenty-two  forges  and  anvils,  of  which  but  twenty  are 
shown  on  the  plan  here  given.  There  is  no  basement  under 
the  forge  shop.  The  machine  shop  is  also  on  this  floor.  This 
room  is  equipped  with  lathes,  drills,  and  other  machine  tools, 
and  has  fourteen  benches,  marked  g  on  the  plan,  and  dressing 
lockers,  marked  C-  A  small  chemical  laboratory  adjoins  the 
third-year  schoolroom. 

The  second  and  third  floors  are  provided  with  the  requisite 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


217 


2l8  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

wash-rooms;  those  for  the  first-floor  shops  are  placed  in  the 
basement.  Here,  also,  are  dressing  rooms  and  toilet  rooms, 
the  engine  room,  the  repair  shop,  a  lunch  room,  and  a  warm- 
air  chamber,  the  boiler  being  in  a  separate  chamber.  Under 
the  steps  is  the  fire-proof  oil  room. 

Dr.  C  M.  Woodward,  the  director  of  this  school  and  author 
of  a  treatise  on  "  The  Manual  Training  School,"  says,  in  criti- 
cism of  the  plan  of  the  St.  Louis  school:  — 

"  I.  The  forging  shop,  which  is  the  noisiest  shop  in  all,  is 
rather  too  near  the  schoolrooms.  In  warm  weather,  when  the 
windows  are  open,  the  noise  is  somewhat  troublesome.  I 
should  prefer  a  plan  which  turned  the  shop  wing  ninety  de- 
grees to  the  left,  so  as  to  place  the  forging  shop  directly  be- 
yond the  machine  shop.  In  other  words,  I  would  put  the 
school  and  drawing  rooms  at  the  head  of  a  "f,  and  the  shops 
in  the  long  central  part,  with  the  forging  shops  at  the  extreme 
end. 

"  2.  There  is  no  well  or  shaft  for  the  transmission  of  power 
to  the  several  floors  from  the  basement.  The  transmission 
should  be  from  floor  to  floor  by  belts  with  suitable  tighteners. 

Each  shop  should  be  furnished  with  a  clutch,  by  means  of 
which  the  teacher  in  charge  may  turn  on  his  shop  or  turn  it 
off*  at  pleasure,  without  interfering  with  the  other  shops.  At 
times  the  teacher  needs  a  quiet  room,  where  his  voice  may  be 
easily  heard  as  he  gives  the  theory  of  a  machine,  explains  the 
details  of  a  process,  or  criticizes  work  before  a  class.  In  the 
transfer  of  power,  gearing  is  too  noisy  for  a  school.  The  main 
shafting  and  pulleys  of  the  machine  shop  of  the  St.  Louis 
school  cannot  be  stopped  without  stopping  the  engine.  While 
this  defect  is  hard  to  remedy,  it  may  easily  be  avoided  in  a 
new  plan. 

"  3.  On  the  third  floor  I  would  interchange  the  wood-work- 
ing shop  with  the  drawing  and  physics  rooms.  This  would 
accomplish  two  things:  first,  it  would  place  the  drawing  room 
and  physical  laboratory  over  a  comparatively  quiet  room,  as 
there   is   no   noise   in   the   molding  room;    and,  secondly,  no 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


219 


divisions  would  pass  through  a  shop   where   the  boys  are  at 
work." 

Dr.  Woodward  further  suggests:  "As  a  rule,  the  study 
and  recitation  rooms  should  be  separated  from  the  shops  by 
two  walls  enclosing  halls,  stairways,  or  yard;  at  the  same  time 
I  should  prefer  to  have  all  the  rooms  for  a  class  on  the  same 
floor,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  and  but  a  few  steps  away. 
It  may  not  work  badly  to  have  a  division  cross  the  yard,  but  I 
advise  strongly  against  sending  a  division  out  of  the  yard,  or 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 


FIG.     144. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
CAMBRIDGE    MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOL. 


across  the  street.  I  do  not  favor  the  transfer  of  a  division  of 
students  from  one  principal  to  another  and  back  again.  No 
principal  would  like  that  arrangement  in  the  case  of  such  a 
study  as  arithmetic  or  spelling,  and  shop  work  and  drawing 
should  be  treated  with  precisely  the  same  consideration.  The 
same  precautions  should,  in  all  cases,  be  taken  to  prevent 
irregularities  and  loss  of  time.  In  short,  manual  work  should 
be  treated  as  school  work,  and  watched  and  guarded  and 
sustained  as  such."    The   use  of  a   dynamo   in  each   shop   to 


220 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


S 

w     W 

oa 
<: 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


221 


drive  the  machinery  removes  all  of  the  difficulties  connected 
with  the  transmission  of  power,  suggested  by  Dr.  Woodward. 

The  first  Toledo  Manual  Training  School  was  built  in  1885 
as  an  addition  to  a  large  high  school.  This  building  was 
burned  two  or  three  years  ago,  and  the  writer  has  been  unable 
to  obtain  the  plans  of  the  new  manual  training  school  which 
has  been  built  upon  the  site  of  the  former  building.  The 
plans  of  the  new  manual  training  school  in  Chicago  are  also 
lacking. 

The  Cambridge  Manual  Training  School  (Fig.  144)  was 
founded  by  Mr.  Frederick  H.  Rindge,  and  presented  by  him 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOL,    CAMBRIDGE,    MASS. 
Rotch  &  Tilden,  Architects. 

to  the  city.  The  shops  and  drawing  rooms  are  in  a  building 
by  themselves,  connected  by  a  covered  way  with  the  build- 
ing assigned  to  the  academic  course  (Fig.  145).  In  this  latter 
building  are  schoolrooms,  physical  laboratory,  assembly  hall, 
fire  drill  hall,  and  gymnasium. 

In  the  wood-working  room  of  the  mechanical  building  there 
are  two  departments:  one  for  general  carpentry,  and  the  other 
for  turning  and  pattern-making.  Sixteen  pupils  can  be  accom- 
modated at  one  time  in  each  of  these  departments.  The  iron- 
working  room  is  also  fitted  for  two  distinct  kinds  of  work. 
The  appliances  upon  the  west  side  are  adapted  to  chipping. 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


223 


filing,  drilling,  scraping,  etc.,  while  those  upon  the  east  side 
are  for  machine  tool  work.  Classes  of  twelve  pupils  are 
accommodated  in  each  department.  The  forge  shop  is  fur- 
nished with  portable  forges,  connected  with  a  blower  and  an 
exhaust  fan,  together  with  anvils,  tool  benches,  and  tools  for 
classes  of  fifteen  pupils.     The  drawing  rooms  upon  the  second 


FIG.    146. 


BASEMENT    PLAN. 

MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOL,    BOSTON. 


floor  are  furnished  with  convenient  appointments  for  classes 
of  thirty  pupils.  Adjoining  the  drawing-rooms  are  a  reading 
room  and  a  supply  room.  Three  classes  are  accommodated 
daily  in  each  department. 

With  the  exception  of  the   space  required  for  the  janitor's 
room,  the    central    portion    of  the   basement   and  the  entire 


224 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


southern  wing  are  devoted  to  toilet  rooms,  wash-rooms,  and 
two  hundred  and  seventy-tive  lockers  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  pupils'  clothing.  These  lockers  are  grouped  about 
large  sinks  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water.  Leading  from 
one  of  the  wash-rooms  is  a  well-appointed  shower-bath.  Ad- 
joining the  kitchen   is  a  small  dining  room  in  which  dinners 


THIRD   FLOOR    PLAN. 


Q  e 


[Dram 
^m  mm 

^..SL-  fn   - — h 
mmmmmriL    i 

SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     147.       MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOL,    BOSTON. 

are  served,  at  cost,  to  the  instructors  and  such  pupils  as  desire 
them.  The  remaining  space  in  this  wing  is  devoted  to  a 
supply  room,  and  to  a  large  dining  room  in  which  pupils  eat 
the  lunches  which  they  bring  to  school. 

The   Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  at  Boston,  was  opened 
in   1893,  but  the  north  wing,  containing  the  laboratories  and 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS.  225 

library,  was  not  completed  until  1900.  The  plans  of  the  com- 
pleted structure  (Figs.  146,  147)  have  been  developed  by 
experience,  and  the  building  now  lacks  but  two  important 
features,  —  a  gymnasium  and  an  especially  assigned  assembly 
hall.  The  following  description  of  the  plan  and  appointments 
of  the  school  is  based  upon  that  given  in  the  last  report  of 
the  head  master.  Dr.  Charles  W.  Parmenter,  and  it  has  been 
amended  by  him  in  conformity  with  the  equipment  of  the 
completed  building. 

In  the  basement  are  the  forge  shop,  in  a  one  story  structure, 
the  boiler  room,  coal  room,  engine  room,  engineer's  storeroom, 
the  janitor's  room,  and  the  bicycle  room.  Here,  also,  are  the 
principal  toilet  rooms,  and  dressing  rooms  containing  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty-eight  clothes  lockers,  each  fitted  with  a  com- 
bination lock,  and  adapted  to  accommodate  two  boys.  Each 
of  these  lockers  is  23  by  18  ins.  in  plan,  and  5  ft.  high.  The 
floors  and  the  upper  panel  of  each  door  are  of  stout  wire- 
netting.     In  one  of  the  dressing  rooms  is  the  lunch  counter. 

On  the  first  floor  are  the  office  of  the  head  master,  with  a 
lobby  for  visitors  and  a  library  adjoining,  the  chemical  labora- 
tory and  the  room  for  chemical  stores,  two  schoolrooms,  one 
of  which  accommodates  eighty  pupils,  and  the  other,  ninety- 
six,  three  recitation  rooms,  the  machine  shop,  the  tool  room 
for  metal-working  tools,  a  storage  room  for  metal  stock,  an 
office  for  the  instructors  in  metal  work,  and  a  private  room 
for  men  teachers. 

On  the  second  floor  are  the  physical  laboratory,  a  teacher's 
laboratory,  and  storage  room  for  apparatus  with  a  dark 
room  adjoining,  a  private  room  for  women  teachers,  two 
schoolrooms  identical  with  those  on  the  first  floor,  two  wood- 
working rooms  for  first-year  pupils,  the  carpentry  tool  room, 
the  room  for  the  preparation  of  wood-working  stock,  and  the 
finishing  room. 

On  the  third  floor  are  two  schoolrooms  identical  with  those 
on  the  first  floor,  a  small  schoolroom  which  accommodates 
thirty  pupils,  two  drawing  rooms,  a  storage  room  for  drawing 


226 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


MACHINE    SHOP,     NORTH    SIDE. 


MACHINE    SHOP,    SOUTH    SIDE. 
MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOL,    BOSTON. 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


227 


materials,  a  wood-turning  and  pattern-making  room,  a  model- 
ing room,  and  a  toilet  room.  The  two  large  schoolrooms  are 
separated  by  flexible  doors,  so  that  they  may  be  thrown  to- 
gether to  furnish  an  assembly  hall  for  occasional  use. 

Each  of  the  drawing  rooms  has  accommodations  for  six 
classes,  daily,  of  thirty-six  pupils.  Each  drawing  table  (Fig. 
148)  is  fitted  with  a  locker,  which  holds  six  half  imperial 
drawing  boards.  The  six  drawers,  on  the  right  of  this  locker, 
contain  the  personal  property  of  each  pupil.  The  following 
instruments  are  supplied  to  each  table,  and  are  used  in  com- 
mon by  members  of  different  classes.     With  the   exception 


FIG.     148.       DRAWING    TABLE. 

of  the    T    square,   the}'  are    stored    in    the    drawer    over  the 
locker:  — 

A  celluloid  triangle,  7-in.  45°  ;  a  celluloid  triangle,  g-in.  30°  and  60°  ;  a  cellu- 
loid curve,  No.  26;  a  hard  rubber  curve,  No.  4;  an  architect's  triangular  scale, 
i2-in.  ;  a  foot  rule;  a  thumb  tack  lifter;  a  knife;  an  emery  lead  sharpener;  a 
dusting  cloth  ;  and  a  24-in.  T  square. 


228  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Over  the  teacher's  platform  in  each  drawing  room,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  slate  blackboard  on  the  wall,  is  a  set  of  three 
movable  blackboards  placed  one  directly  in  front  of  another, 
and  each  hung  by  counterbalanced  weights.  In  the  rear  of 
the  larger  room  are  the  sink  and  racks  for  washing  and  drying 
blue  prints. 

Two  adjoining  rooms  on  the  second  floor  are  assigned  to 
the  department  for  wood-working  with  hand  tools.  These 
rooms  are  equipped  for  six  classes,  daily,  of  thirty-six  pupils. 
Each  room  is  furnished  with  eighteen  double  benches,  57  ins. 
long,  45  ins.  wide  on  the  top,  and  varying  in  height  from  29  ins. 
to  33  ins.  On  each  side  of  these  benches  is  a  tier  of  three 
drawers,  one  of  which  is  assigned  to  each  pupil  for  the  set  of 
cutting  tools  with  which  he  is  supplied.  Here,  also,  are  kept 
his  apron  and  unfinished  work.  Upon  a  vertical  tool  board, 
9^  ins.  high,  which  divides  the  top  of  the  bench  in  the 
center,  and  upon  hooks  and  shelves  at  the  ends  of  the  bench 
are  kept  the  following  measuring  and  miscellaneous  tools  used 
in  common  by  members  of  different  classes:  — 

Stanley  Rule  and  Level  Company's  tools ;  one  each,  T  bevel,  10  ins.,  No.  18  ;  rule, 
2  ft.,  No.  18;  try-square,  6  ins..  No.  lo.  A  Buck  Brothers  screw-driver,  5  ins..  No. 
69;  Bemis  &  Call  wing  dividers,  7  ins.;  a  Spofford  bit  brace.  No.  108;  a  Disston 
rip-saw,  22  ins.,  D  8,  with  8  teeth  to  the  inch  ;  a  Disston  cross-cut  saw,  22  ins.,  D  8, 
with  10  teeth  to  the  inch  ;  a  Disston  back-saw,  12  ins.,  No.  4  ;  a  Bliss  mallet.  No.  3  ; 
a  Maydole  adze-eye  bell-faced  hammer.  No.  13;  a  Washita  oil  stone,  8  by  2  by  i|- 
ins.,  in  box  ;  a  brass  paragon  oil  can.  No.  o  ;  a  bench  hook,  1 2  by  8  by  ^  ins. ;  two 
winding  sticks,  18  by  2  by  ^  ins. ;  a  dust  brush. 

The  individual  sets  kept  in  the  drawers  are:  — 

Bailey's  patent  adjustable  iron  tools:  one  each,  jack-plane,  14  ins.,  No.  5  ;  jointer- 
plane,  22  ins..  No.  7;  smoothing-plane,  8  ins..  No.  3;  spoke-shave,  No.  51  ;  Buck 
Brothers  shank  firmer  chisels.  No.  2,  one  each,  ^,  |,  1,  i^  ins.;  a  gothic  point 
knife;  genuine  Russell  Jennings  bits,  one  each,  J,  |,  ^,  |.  |  in. ;  a  whisk  broom; 
a  Stanley  marking  gage,  No.  65. 

Each  pupil  is  also  supplied  with  a  tray,  26^/^  ins.  long,  13% 
ins.  wide,  and  i^  ins.  deep,  divided  into  compartments 
adapted  to  receive  the  following  set  of  Buck  Brothers'  London 
style  carving  tools :  — 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


229 


woon-woRKixr;  shop. 


WOOD-TURNING    SHOP. 
MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOL,    BOSTON. 


230  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Chisels,  one  each,  i  in.,  No.  i  ;  ^  in.,  No.  i  ;  |  in..  No.  2 ;  gouges,  one  each,  | 
in.,  No.  3 ;  j\  in.,  No.  4 ;  ^\  in.,  No.  5  ;  ^%  in.,  No.  5  ;  /^  in..  No.  5  ;  f  in..  No,  5  ; 
^  in..  No.  6 ;  ^%  in.,  No.  7  ;  y\  in.,  No.  7  ;  ^^  i"-'  No.  1 1  ;  1  in.,  No.  11;  ^%  in., 
No.  1 1  ;  parting  tool,  I  in..  No.  39. 

These  trays  are  stored  in  cases  at  one  end  of  each  room. 
Two  Brown  &  Sharpe  grindstone  troughs,  fitted  with  stones 
and  truing  devices,  are  installed  in  one  of  these  rooms. 

The  tool  room,  which  contains  a  variety  of  minor  supplies, 
together  with  a  large  collection  of  miscellaneous  tools  for 
occasional  use,  is  located  between  the  two  wood-working 
rooms,  and  is  entered  from  each  of  them.  Many  of  the  shelves 
in  this  room  are  divided  by  narrow  strips  of  wood  in  such  a 
way  that  each  tool  has  its  appropriate  compartment.  Each 
pupil  is  supplied  with  three  brass  checks  bearing  his  shop 
number,  one  of  which  will  be  received  by  the  person  in  charge 
of  the  tool  room  in  exchange  for  any  desired  tool.  The  check 
is  placed  in  the  compartment  from  which  the  tool  is  taken, 
where  it  remains  until  it  is  redeemed  by  the  return  of  the  tool. 
The  following  are  the  principal  tools  in  this  tool  room:  — 

Bailey's  patent  adjustable  iron  planes  :  four  beading,  No.  50  ;  two  dado,  fillester, 
plow,  etc..  No.  46  ;  one  tonguing  and  grooving.  No.  48  ;  one  tonguing  and  grooving. 
No.  49  ;  twenty-four  rabbet,  i  in.,  No.  192;  one  beading,  rabbet,  and  slitting,  No. 
45;  one  bull-nose  rabbet,  No.  75;  two  circular,  No.  13.  Buck  Brothers'  tools: 
shank  firmer  chisels,  No.  2,  six  each,  I,  ^^,  ^\,  ^,  |,  f,  J,  ly,  ij  ins.;  twelve  each, 
rose  countersinks,  No.  83,  snail  counter  sinks,  No.  84  ;  six  cabinet  maker's  burnish- 
ers, 5  ins.,  No.  91  ;  eighteen  square-point  nail  sets,  assorted;  eighteen  round-point 
nail  sets,  assorted.  One  new  Langdon  miter  box,  No.  2  ;  one  Stanley  adjustable 
spirit  level,  30  ins. ;  two  adjustable  ball  and  socket  saw  clamps ;  one  rachet  bit  brace ; 
six  Stanley  rule  trammel  points,  No.  99 ;  two  Morrill  saw  sets,  No.  i  ;  two  Stubs 
flat  nose  pliers ;  steel  figures  and  letters  for  wood,  one  set,  \  in. ;  for  metal,  one  set, 
I  in.,  and  one  set,  ^  in. ;  seventy-two  chalk  lines,  reels,  and  awls ;  twenty-four  brad 
awls,  assorted  sizes;  two  Clark  patent  expansive  bits;  three  Sargent  steel  squares, 
24  ins..  No.  300.  Files:  thirty-six  flat  bastard,  10  ins.;  thirty  half  round  bastard, 
10  ins. ;  twelve  half  round  smooth,  10  ins.;  six  pillar,  7  by  ^  ins.,  No.  6 ;  twelve 
three  square,  7  ins.,  assorted  ;  six  Nicholson  file  brushes.  Stanley  Rule  and  Level 
Company's  tools  :  two  try-squares,  12  ins..  No.  10  ;  two  miter  squares,  12  ins..  No.  16; 
twelve  Bemis  &  Call  wing  calipers,  6  ins. ;  twelve  best  French  cabinet  scrapers, 
square,  5  by  3  ins.;  twelve  best  French  cabinet  scrapers,  curved,  5^  by  2^  ins.;  one 
Coes  monkey  wrench,  12  ins.;  sixty  Miller's  Falls  turning  saws  and  frames,  18  ins. ; 
genuine  Russell  Jennings  bits,  twelve  I  in. ;  one  each,  ^'?^,  ^^,  ^^,  |^,  ||,  j|  in. ; 
German  nail  bits,  twelve  each,  |,  ^^,  ^^^  in. ;  six  Stearns  patent  dowel  pointers ;  two 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS.  23! 

Disston  rip-saws,  26  ins.,  D  8,  6  teeth  to  the  inch  ;  two  Disston  cross-cut  saws,  26 
ins.,  D  8,  7  teeth  to  the  inch.  R.  Bliss  &  Co.'s  tools:  eighteen  cabinet  maker's 
clamps.  No.  74 ;  sixty  hand  screws.  No.  1 1  ;  sixty  hand  screws.  No.  4.  Buck 
Brothers' London  style  carving  tools,  four  of  each;  front  bent  chisels,  No.  21,  ^\j, 
j\,  \  in.;  No.  22,  |,  /g,  \  in.  ;  No.  23,  |,  j\,  \  in.;  front  bent  gouges,  No.  27, 
I  in. ;  No.  32,  \  in. ;  back  bent  gouges.  No.  35,  \  in. ;  No.  38,  \  in. ;  parting  tools, 
No.  43,  \  in.;  gouges,  No.  3,  i  in.;  No.  5,  i  in.;  No.  11,  f  in. 

Opening  out  of  one  of  the  wood-working  rooms  is  a  small 
room  for  the  preparation  of  stock  for  models  and  for  special 
saw  work.  Here  are  installed  a  double-arbor  bench  saw,  a 
band-saw,  for  the  use  of  the  instructors  and  especially  skilful 
pupils  onl}-,  and  a  jig-saw,  which  all  the  pupils  are  permitted 
to  use.  The  location  of  these  saws  in  a  separate  room  per- 
mits their  use  without  disturbance  to  class  exercises. 

In  the  wood-turning  and  pattern-making  room  there  are 
thirty-six  benches.  On  one  side  of  the  bench  is  an  ii-in. 
speed  lathe,  the  other  side  is  used  for  hand  tool  work.  As  in 
the  other  wood-working  rooms,  these  benches  are  fitted  with 
9-in,  quick-action  vises.  Beneath  the  lathe  is  a  tier  of  three 
drawers,  in  each  of  which  is  kept  a  set  of  turning  tools.  On 
the  opposite  side,  under  the  work  bench,  is  a  tier  of  four 
drawers.  The  top  drawer  in  this  tier  is  devoted  to  the 
measuring  and  miscellaneous  tools  used  in  common  by  mem- 
bers of  different  classes,  while  each  of  the  three  others  con- 
tains an  individual  set  of  cutting  tools. 

Individual  turning  tools:  — 

Buck  Brothers'  tools :  gouges.  No.  20,  one  each,  \,  \,  %,  ^\  ins. ;  chisels.  No.  19, 
one  each,  |,  \,  |,  i^  ins. ;  No.  103,  |  in.;  No.  104,  \  in. ;  parting  tool,  No.  18,  f  in.; 
a  Washita  gouge  slip. 

Individual  joinery  tools:  — 

Bailey's  patent  adjustable  iron  tools  :  one  each,  fore-plane,  18  ins.  No.  6  ;  smooth- 
ing plane,  8  ins.,  No.  3  ;  spoke-shave,  No.  51.  Buck  Brothers'  shank  firmer  chisels, 
No.  2,  one  each,  J,  |,  r,  i  ^  ins. ;  a  gothic  point  knife  ;  a  Stanley  marking  gage.  No. 
65  ;  a  whisk  broom. 

Tools  used  in  common:  — 

Bemis  &  Call  Company's  tools  :  wing  dividers,  7  ins. ;  wing  calipers,  6  ins. ;  patent 
inside  calipers,  6  ins.  Genuine  Russell  Jennings  bits,  one  each,  \,  |,  \,  |,  |  in. 
Stanley  Rule  and  Level  Company's  tools:  try-square,  6  ins.,  No.  10  ;  rule,  2  ft.,  No. 


232 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


l8;  T  bevel,  lo  ins.,  No,  i8.  A  Maydole  adze-eye  bell-faced  hammer,  No  13;  a 
Bliss  mallet.  No.  3  ;  a  Buck  Brothers  screw-driver,  5  ins..  No.  69;  a  Spofford  bit 
brace,  No.  108  ;  a  Disston  rip-saw,  22  ins.,  D  8,  with  8  teeth  to  the  inch  ;  a  Disston 
cross-cut  saw,  22  ins.,  D  8,  with  10  teeth  to  the  inch  ;  a  Disston  back-saw,  12  ins., 
No.  4;  a  bench  hook,  12  by  8  by  i  ins.  ;  two  winding  sticks,  18  by  2  by  h  ins.; 
a  Washita  oil  stone,  8  by  2  by  1  i  ins.,  in  box. ;  a  brass  paragon  oil  can,  No.  o  ;  a 
Chase  patent  brass  oiler.  No.  2  ;  a  dust  brush. 

Conveniently  located  in   the  center  of  the  room  are  two 
grindstones  and  a  pattern-maker's  lathe  having  an  8-tt.  bed, 


TURNING    AND    PATTERN-MAKING.       DEMONSTRATION    LESSON. 


and  capable,  with  open  slide,  of  doing  work  36  ins.  in  diameter. 
This  lathe  is  fitted  with  the  most  approved  devices  for  doing 
all  kinds  of  work,  and  is  designed  to  be  used  only  by  the  in- 
structor and  by  pupils  who  develop  special  skill  and  demon- 
strate their  ability  to  do  a  high  order  of  work.  Near  at  hand 
is  a  small  tool  room,  which  contains  a  large  variety  of  minor 
supplies,  and  all  miscellaneous  tools  likely  to  be  needed.    The 


234  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

loft  above  this  room  furnishes  adequate  storage  for  a  year's 
supply  of  lumber. 

In  one  corner  of  each  of  the  three  wood-working  rooms  is 
an  amphitheater,  in  which .  the  entire  class  may  be  seated  so 
that  each  member  can  see  plainly  the  work  done  by  the  in- 
structor at  the  demonstration  bench.  The  space  behind  the 
amphitheater  has  been  utilized  to  provide  a  convenient  place 
for  sinks  and  mirrors.  Each  room  is  also  furnished  with  large 
cases,  which  provide  convenient  storage  for  prepared  stock  and 
finished  work.  The  frames  of  drawing  tables  and  work- 
benches, and  all  exposed  parts  of  tables,  benches,  and  cases 
are  ash;  the  sides  of  drawers,  interior  of  cases,  and  tops  of 
drawing  tables  are  white  pine;  the  tops  of  work-benches  are 
of  narrow  strips  of  maple  glued  together  to  prevent  warping. 
All  drawers  and  compartments  of  cases  are  fitted  with  locks, 
no  two  of  which  have  the  same  combination,  but  all  are 
operated  by  a  master  key.  The  tables  and  benches  have  been 
constructed  in  the  most  thorough  and  substantial  manner,  and 
no  pains  have  been  spared  to  make  every  part  of  the  equip- 
ment illustrate  excellence  of  design  and  workmanship. 

The  forge  shop  is  a  one-story  brick  structure,  93  ft.  long 
and  41  ft.  wide,  which  occupies  the  entire  space  between  the 
two  wings  in  the  rear  of  the  main  building.  It  is  lighted  both 
by  windows  in  the  wall  and  by  a  large  monitor  with  skylight. 
Its  relation  to  the  main  building  is  such  that  the  noise  incident 
to  the  work  causes  no  disturbance  in  the  class  rooms.  It  is 
equipped  with  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Company's  new  down  draft 
forges,  and  all  necessary  appliances  for  the  instruction  of  three 
classes,  daily,  each  containing  thirty-six  pupils.  The  equip- 
ment of  each  forge  is  as  follows  :  — 

A  set  of  blacksmith's  tongs  (groove  in  jaw)  for  holding  iron,  |^,  ^,  |,  ^,  |  in. ; 
tool  tongs  for  |-in.  square  iron ;  square  groove  tongs  for  iron,  ^  by  J  in. ;  bolt  tongs, 
I  in. ;  a  poker  for  forge,  2  f t. ;  a  dipper,  3^  ins.  diameter,  3 J  ins.  deep,  handle,  15 
ins. ;  a  rake  for  forge,  2  f t.  ;  a  coal  hod  ;  a  forge  shovel. 

Upon  a  post  convenientl}'  located  with  reference  to  each  of 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


235 


these  forges  is  an  eagle  anvil  weighing   130  lbs.,  near  which  is 
placed  a  tool  bench  supplied  with  the  following  tools:  — 

A  cross peen  hand  hammer,  2\  lbs. ;  a  top  and  bottom  swage,  I  in.;  a  hot  chisel 
from  I  i-in.  steel ;  a  flatter,  2-in.  face ;  a  set  hammer,  i  |-in.  face ;  a  hardy,  |-in. 
shank  ;  a  heading  tool,  /^v  in. ;  a  center  punch,  |  by  5  ins. ;  top  and  bottom  fullers, 
I  in.  ;  a  steel  square,  12  ins.,  graduated  to  ^^  in.  outside,  ^r^  in.  inside  ;  Bemis  &  Call 
outside  wing  calipers,  6  ins. ;  punches,  one  each,  i,  |  in.  ;  copper  plate,  2^  by  2|  by 
I  ins. ;  a  dust  brush. 

Each  of  the  thirty-six  tool  benches  (Fig.  149),  14  by  21 
ins.  in  plan,  and  27  ins.  high,  contains  three  drawers,  one  of 
which  is  assigned  to  each  boy  for  the  storage  of  the  models 


FIG.  149.   TOOL  BENCH  IN  FORGE  SHOP. 

which  he  has  completed,  or  on  which  he  is  engaged.  Each  of 
these  individual  drawers  is  furnished  with  a  i^-lb.  ball  peen 
hand  hammer.  Fourteen  blacksmith's  vises  and  one  combina- 
tion pipe  vise  are  attached  to  benches  firmly  secured  to  the 
brick  floor  in  convenient  locations.  Fans  of  ample  size  pro- 
duce blast  for  the  forges,  and  carry  away  the  foul  air  and 
products  of  combustion. 

In  one   corner  of  the  room   is   a  raised  platforrh,  on  which 


236  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

thirty-six  arm  chairs  are  placed  for  the  use  of  pupils  during 
the  demonstration  lessons.  The  instructor's  forge,  located  in 
front  of  this  platform,  is  supplied  with  a  hand  blower  for  use 
when  the  engine  is  not  running.  A  75-lb.  power  hammer,  a 
New  Doty  Manufacturing  Company's  No.  7  A  power  shear,  a 
drill  press,  an  automatic  drop  press  (Mossberg  &  Granville 
Company's  pattern)  built  by  pupils  in  1899-1900,  an  emery 
grinder,  a  bolt  heading  machine,  and  numerous  miscellaneous 
tools  complete  the  equipment. 

The  machine  shop  is  equipped  for  classes  of  twenty-four 
pupils.  The  benches,  20  ins.  wide  and  from  ;^2  to  ^6  ins. 
high,  which  extend  along  three  sides  of  this  room  are  divided 
into  twenty-four  sections,  each  provided  with  a  vise  and  a  tier 
of  four  drawers,  one  of  which  is  assigned  to  each  pupil.  In 
this  drawer  the  boy  stores  the  work  upon  which  he  is  engaged, 
together  with  about  a  dozen  files  and  a  set  of  chisels  and  lathe 
tools.  Four  additional  pupils  can  be  accommodated,  in  emer- 
gencies, at  a  less  convenient  bench  located  on  the  west  side  of 
the  room.  At  the  beginning  of  a  lesson  each  pupil  obtains 
from  the  tool  room  a  tray,  adapted  to  fit  a  compartment  either 
in  the  upper  drawer  at  his  bench  or  on  the  tool-board  of  his 
lathe. 

This  tray  contains  the  following  tools:  — 

A  Brown  &  Sharpe  hardened  steel  try-square,  3  ins. ;  a  Brown  &  Sharpe  tem- 
pered steel  rule,  6  ins.,  No.  7  graduation ;  a  Brown  &  Sharpe  tempered  center 
gage  ;  Starrett  outside  lock-joint  calipers,  6  ins. ;  Starrett  inside  lock-joint  calipers, 
4  ins. ;  Fay  outside  spring  calipers,  3  ins. ;  Fay  spring  dividers,  3  ins.  ;  a  file  card  ; 
an  Arkansas  oil  stone,  2  by  i  by  f\  ins. ;  a  center  punch ;  a  prick  punch ;  a  scratch 
awl ;  a  center  chisel ;  a  tin  box  for  chalk  ;  a  key  to  the  upper  drawer  at  the  bench. 

Upon  the  bench  or  in  the  upper  drawer  are  kept:  — 

A  Spiers  ball  peen  hammer,  i^  lbs. ;  a  pair  of  brass  vise  jaws  ;  hardwood  blocks 
for  use  in  chipping;  a  bench  plate,  8  by  6  by  i  ins.;  a  parallel,  4  by  2  by  i  ins.; 
a  parallel,  4  by  1 1  by  |  ins. ;  a  Draper  steel  oiler,  No.  13  ;  and  a  bench  brush.  The 
vises  are  of  several  varieties,  as  follows  :  thirteen  Lewis,  4  ins..  No.  39  ;  one  Lewis, 
4  ins.,  No,  10,  with  swivel  jaw  and  base;  seven  Standard,  4  ins..  No.  91  ;  two 
Mechanics,  4  ins. ;  i  Miller's  Falls,  4  ins. 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


237 


This  shop  is  equipped  with  the  following  machine  tools:  — 
Three  14-in.  engine  lathes,  5-ft.  beds,  each  having  a  com- 
pound rest,  and  one  a  taper  attachment,  built  by  the  Fitchburg 
Machine  Works;  one  14-in.  engine  lathe,  5-ft.  bed,  with  com- 
pound rest,  taper  attachment,  and  wire  chucks,  built  by  the 
Hendey  Machine  Company;  one  14-in.  engine  lathe,  6-ft.  bed, 
with  compound  rest, built  by  Prentice  Brothers;  sixteen  12-in. 


FORGE    SHOP.       DEMONSTRATION    LESSON. 


engine  lathes,  5-ft.  beds,  with  elevating  rests,  built  by  the 
F.  E.  Reed  Company;  three  12-in.  engine  lathes,  5-ft.  beds, 
with  plain  rests  and  taper  attachments,  built  by  F.  E.  Reed 
Company;  one  20-in.  planer,  built  by  Fitchburg  Machine 
Works,  supplied  with  a  lo-in.  Skinner  vise  with  square  base; 
one  17-in.  planer  built  by  Whitcomb  Manufacturing  Company, 
supplied  with  8-in.  Skinner  vise  with  square  base;  one  14-in. 
pillar  shaper,  built  by  the  Pratt  &  Whitney  Company;  one 


238  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

No.  2  universal  milling  machine,  built  by  the  Brown  & 
Sharpe  Manufacturing  Company;  one  universal  hand  lathe, 
built  by  the  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Company  sup- 
plied with  shell  chucks,  J,  yg,  |,  ^%,  and  |  in,;  a  Whiton 
geared  scroll  chuck,  2^  ins.,  and  an  Almond  drill  chuck, 
No.  2;  four  lo-in.  hand  lathes,  three  with  35^-ft.  beds,  one 
with  4-ft.  bed,  built  by  the  Putnam  Machine  Company;  four 
9-in.  hand  lathes,  3 5^ -ft.  beds,  one  of  which  has  a  foot 
power  attachment  (F.  E.  Reed  Company's  pattern),  built  by 
pupils  in  1897-98;  one  Walker  universal  tool  and  cutter 
grinder,  complete  with  attachments,  built  by  the  Norton 
Emery  Wheel  Company;  one  20-in.  standard  upright  drill, 
built  by  Prentice  Brothers,  fitted  with  Pratt  drill  chuck, 
No.  2;  one  upright  drill,  built  by  Sigourney  Tool  Company, 
fitted  with  Almond  drill  chuck,  No.  2;  one  lo-inch  sen- 
sitive drill,  with  centering  attachment  (Dwight  Slate  Ma- 
chine Company's  pattern),  built  by  pupils  in  1899-1900,  fitted 
with  Almond  drill  chuck.  No.  2;  two  grindstone  troughs, 
built  by  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Company,  each  fitted 
with  a  39-in.  stone  and  truing  device;  one  Challenge  wet  and 
dry  grinder.  No.  C,  built  by  Appleton  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany; one  Greenerd  arbor  press,  No.  3;  one  power  hack  saw. 
Th'e  following  chucks  are  fitted  to  the  Engine  lathes:  one 
Westcott  scroll  combination,  lo-in.,  three  jaws;  two  Standard 
independent,  lo-in.,  four  jaws;  three  Union  combination, 
6-in.,  three  reversible  jaws;  five  National  independent,  6-in., 
four  reversible  jaws;  10  Skinner  independent,  6-in.,  four  jaws; 
one  Whiton  geared  scroll,  4-in.;  one  Pratt,  No.  i.  The  fol- 
lowing chucks  are  fitted  to  the  Putnam  hand  lathes;  four 
Whiton  geared  scroll,  3-in.;  one  Whiton  geared  drill;  one 
Little  Giant  drill,  No.  o.  Each  engine  lathe  is  furnished  with 
a  tool  board  of  special  design,  adapted  to  receive  the  tool  tray, 
and  to  provide  a  convenient  place  for  cutting  and  miscella- 
neous tools.  Upon  pegs,  in  a  vertical  board  fastened  under 
the  bed  of  each  lathe,  are  kept  the  face  plates,  change  gears, 
back  rest,  chuck   drill  rest,  and  a  set  of  dogs,  ^,  ^,  i,  ij4i 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS.  239 

and  2  ins.  There  is  no  available  space  for  an  amphitheater 
similar  to  those  in  the  wood-working  department.  During  the 
demonstration  lessons  pupils  occupy  tablet  arm  chairs  grouped 
about  the  instructor's  bench,  which  is  placed  in  front  ot  a 
large  blackboard  in  the  rear  of  the  room.  Near  at  hand  is  the 
tool  room,  furnished  with  shelves  and  cases  for  the  numerous 
tools  required  for  the  various  kinds  of  work.  One  of  these 
cases,  which  stands  near  the  door,  contains  the  small  tools 
likely  to  be  needed  frequently,  and  the  tool  trays  previousl}' 
mentioned.  An  attendant  delivers  these  trays  to  the  pupils  at 
the  beginning  of  the  lesson,  and  is  always  ready  to  furnish  any 
desired  tool  in  exchange  for  a  pupil's  check. 

The  universal  tool  and  cutter  grinder  and  the  power  hack- 
saw are  located  in  this  room.  The  principal  small  tools  are 
enumerated  in  the  following  list:  — 

Morse  twist  drills:  one  set,  Nos.  i  to  60  ;  one  set,  ^L  to  .|  in. ;  one  set,  A  to  Z; 
one  earh    3  3    17    35     9      10    39    5    21    43    11    23    47    3    25    51    53    5  9    in-   twn   parh 

tV.  A'  It.  II'  kI'  hh  II  in-'  Nos.  1,17,  20,  36,  46  ;  six  each,  ^\,  1,  i|  in.,  Nos.  6, 
16,  24,  25,  29,  3t,  33,  43  ;  twelve  each,  |,  ^\,  |  in. ;  twenty-four  ^^^  in. 

Morse  straight-way  drills,  y\r  to  J  in.  ;  Slocomb  combination  center  drills :  twelve 
each,  ^jr,  ^2'  i  ^^-  Pratt  &  Whitney  center  reamers :  two  \  in.,  six  |  in.  Drill 
gages :  one  each,  Nos.  i  to  60,  J^  to  ^  in.,  A  to  Z.  Brown  &  Sharpe  pocket  screw 
and  wire  gage.  Wells  Brothers  center  drill  chucks :  one  ^^^  in.,  eight  3^^  in.,  two 
1  in. 

Carpenter  hand  taps,  one  set,  \  to  |  in.  Machine  screw  taps:  one  14  by  36; 
three  each,  3  by  48,  10  by  32,  12  by  24;  twelve  each,  4  by  36,  6  by  32,  8  by  32,  10  by 
24,  14  by  20.  Machine  screw  dies  :  one  each,  3  by  48  ;  10  by  32,  12  by  24,  14  by 
36  ;  eight  each,  4  by  36 ;  6  by  32,  8  by  32  ;  10  by  24,  14  by  20.  Carpenter  round 
die  set,  No.  9  B ;  Carpenter  adjustable  round  dies.  No.  2,  ^  to  ^  in.  Two  Morse 
screw  plates,  A,  with  dies,  ^  to  ^  in.  Tap  wrenches:  Nichols,  Nos.  00,  o,  i,  2; 
Morse,  B;  six  Pratt  &  Whitney,  J6;  two  Wells  Brothers,  No.  i.  One  Wells 
Brothers  lathe  die  holder,  DD.  Carpenter  pipe  taps  and  dies,  |^  to  |  in.  Barnes 
pipe  cutter,  No.  i. 

Reamers:  Pratt  &  Whitney  hand,  i  to  i  j^^y  ins.;  Betts  adjustable  hand,  \  to 
I  in.  ;  Morse  taper,  Nos.  1,2;  Morse  taper  roughing,  two  each,  Nos.  1,2;  Pratt  & 
Whitney  taper  pin,  Nos.  o  to  6.  Mandrels  :  Pratt  &  Whitney,  \  to  i  in. ;  Morse, 
three  each,  \l,  f,  \^  ins. 

Starr^tt's  tools  :  three  scratch  gages,  5  ins. ;  hermaphrodite  calipers,  three  4  ins., 
one  6  ins. ;  inside  lock-joint  calipers,  6  ins. ;  outside  lock-joint  calipers,  8  ins. ; 
six  universal  bevels ;  depth  gage,  4  ins. ;  combination  set,  9  ins. ;  patent  double 
square  with  bevel  blade,  4  ins.;  level,  12  ins. ;  four  hack-saw  frames,  No.  2,  8  ins.; 


240  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

surface  gages,  two  No.  i,  one  No.  2;  high  speed  indicator,  No.  104;  lathe  test 
indicator,  No.  65. 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Company's  tools :  micrometer  calipers  with 
friction  attachment,  nine  No.  19,  one  No.  20,  two  No.  30  ;  vernier  caliper,  6  ins., 
Eng.  and  met.;  two  beveled  steel  straight  edges,  12  ins.;  standard  steel  rules,  12 
ins.,  one  No.  i  graduation,  one  No.  4  graduation  ;  hardened  steel  try-square,  6  ins. ; 
key  seat  rule,  4  ins. ;  test  indicator ;  mercury  plumb  bob,  3^  oz. ;  surface  plates, 
eight  4|  by  6  ins.,  one  6  by  12  ins.;  standard  external  and  internal  cylindrical 
gages,  I  in. ;  two  gas  heaters  ;  standard  screw  thread  gage.  No.  285. 

Pratt  &  Whitney  caliper  gages,  |  to  |  in.;  Speirs  ball  peen  hammers,  two  12 
oz, ;  four  6  oz. ;  two  small  riveting  hammers ;  steel  figures,  ^j.,  3^,  ^  in. ;  steel 
alphabet,  j^  in.  ;  steel  stamps,  M.  A.  H.  S.,  one  each,  ^^,  -^^,  |  in. ;  soldering  set; 
40-ft.  tape  ;  six  knurl  handles  with  assorted  knurls ;  Pratt  &  Whitney  knurling  tool; 
Goodell  breast  drill,  No.  6 ;  Miller's  Falls  hand  drill.  No.  5;  pipe  wrench,  18  ins. ; 
Goes  wrenches,  one  each,  6,  8,  12  ins. ;  four  rawhide  mallets.  No  2  ;  Babbet  ham- 
mer, No.  2  ;  two  steel  screw  clamps,  6  ins. ;  two  Billings  &  Spencer  steel  C  clamps. 
No.  3  ;  two  Lecount  heavy  steel  clamps.  No.  2  ;  two  Besley  parallel  clamps,  4  ins.; 
Almond  turret  head,  No.  i  ;  Pratt  &  Whitney  hollow  mills,  one  each,  ^,  y^^,  |  in. ; 
Vanderbeek  handy  vises,  two  2|  ins.,  one  3|  ins.,  one  6  ins. ;  Billings  &  Spencer 
clamp  dogs,  eighteen  No.  i,  four  No.  2,  two  No.  3  ;  Smith  friction  drill  C,  with 
socket  wrenches  ;  Walworth  brass  pipe  wrench,  |^  to  i  in,  , 

The  stock-room  is  furnished  with  shelves,  compartments, 
and  racks  adapted  to  provide  convenient  storage  for  the  many 
varieties  of  supplies,  castings,  and  prepared  metal  stock  that 
are  needed  by  the  classes. 

Industrial  schools  of  the  continent  of  Europe  differ  in  their 
object  from  the  mechanic  arts  high  schools  of  the  United 
States,  but  they  have  sufficient  similarity  of  purpose  to  render 
their  plans  suggestive. 

The  manual  training  and  the  Sunday  and  holiday  schools  of 
Germany  are  for  those  pupils  who  are  already  employed  as 
apprentices  or  journeymen;  in  such  schools  they  receive  ele- 
mentary instruction  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  the  German 
language,  drawing,  etc.,  as  well  as  instruction  in  their  chosen 
trades. 

The  German  special  industrial  schools  devote  themselves  to 
some  one  particular  trade,  and  especially  to  the  building 
trades;  in  these,  apprentices  and  journe3'men  can  acquire 
special  knowledge  and  familiarity  with  detail  which  it  is  im- 
possible to   obtain   when  actually  engaged  in  the  practise  of 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


241 


the  trade;  while  the  building-trades  schools,  which  really  be- 
long to  the  class  of  technical  high  schools,  are  those  from 
which  overseers  and  managers  are  graduated. 

The  special  schools  for  masons,  carpenters,  and  stone-cutters 
have  been  considered  to  belong  to  the  relatively  lower  grade, 
up  to  the  present  time,  but  there  is  now  a  tendency  to  give  a 
higher  range  to  the  studies  of  these  schools. 


FIG    150.       DRAWING    ROOM    IN    A    FRENCH    INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOL. 

The  regulation  of  such  schools  is  the  most  important  work 
of  the  building  guilds,  and  is  made  incumbent  upon  them  by 
order  of  the  emperor. 

There  are  special  schools  for  forestry  and  agriculture,  min- 
ing, trade,  navigation,  weaving,  dyeing,  lace-making,  straw- 
plaiting,  pottery,  and  watch-making,  as  well  as  some  others 
which  provide  for  other  industries,  such  as  metal-work,  tin- 
smithing,  iron  and  steel  working,  turning  and  carving,  dress- 


242 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


making,  as  well  as  the  industrial  and  trade  schools  for  women. 
There  are  also  industrial  drawing  schools. 

In  the  special  industrial  schools  the  training  is  in  one  par- 
ticular line,  entirely  distinct  from  all  others;  the  instruction  is 
by  classes,  in  a  rigidly  prescribed  course  for  all  participants 
alike.  Other  German  industrial  schools  are  provided  with 
workshops  only;  this  is  true,  also,  of  some  of  the  French 
schools  of  this  class. 

The  organization  of  the  European  elementary  industrial 
schools  is  so  varied  that  the  plans  do  not  show  much  similar- 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN.  SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     151.        INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOL    A  J    WORMS. 


ity;  those  in  Germany  resemble  either  the  primary  schools  or 
the  elementary  burgher  schools,  or  even  the  higher  burgher 
schools;  the  latter  is  the  case  where  instruction  in  drawing 
forms  the  most  important  part  of  the  work,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  elementary  schools  for  builders. 

The  arrangement  and  equipment  of  class  rooms  are  not 
unlike  those  of  other  elementary  schools;  the  same  is  true  of 
the  rooms  for  instruction  in  drawing;  such  a  room,  belonging 
to  a  French  school,  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  150, 

Many  of  these  schools  possess    no  buildings  of  their  own, 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


243 


nilKI)    KI.DOR    I'LAN. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 


■?f?T 


rT'-0DDDDDD&cQaJXBDi 

tr  ij    Wood   Jvo«'<iNd       i'f    Swo-pa  i!! 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     152.       INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOL,     INNSBRUCK,     AUSTRIA. 


244 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


but  hold  their  sessions  in  other  schools  which  are  suitable  for 
this  purpose,  when  they  are  not  needed  for  their  own  classes. 
The  Industrial  School,  at  Worms  (Fig.  151),  consists  of 
basement,  ground  floor,  and  upper  floor.  The  instruction  in 
this  school  is  chiefly  in  drawing,  and  the  rooms  are  arranged 


CO*T   ROOMS 


rz,,    DOODDDDODOP  DODDOt 


THIRD  FLOOR  PLAN. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN. 


FIG.     153. 


FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN. 
SCHOOL    FOR    APPRENTICES    AT    ROUEN,     FRANCE. 


around  a  central  staircase  and  corridors  lighted  by  a  skylight; 
in  the  upper  story  these  corridors  serve  as  exhibition  galleries. 
Facing  south,  on  the  ground  floor  in  front,  is  the  entrance  hall, 
and  on  the  eastern  side  is  a  council  room.     In  the  extension 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


245 


of  the  north  corridor  are  rooms  for  teachers'  supplies,  and  the 
stairs  leading  to  the  upper  stories.  In  the  high  basement  are 
the  pattern-making  rooms  on  the  north,  the  casting  room  on 
the  east,  the  industrial  museum  on  the  south,  and  the  janitor's 
quarters  on  the  west. 

As  an  example  of  a  school  provided  with  workshops,  the 
plans  of  the  State  Industrial  School,  at  Innsbruck  (Fig.  152), 
are  shown.  This  building  consists  of  a  basement,  ground,  and 
two  upper  floors;  the  divisions  of  the  three  last-named  floors 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying  plans.  In  the  original  ar- 
rangement no  provision  was  made  for  a  wood-working  de- 
partment; there  was  only  one  room  for  such  work,  and  that 
was  for  inlaying;  on  this  account  the  cabinet-making  work- 
shops had  to  be  transferred   to   a   room  which  was   originally 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAX. 


FIG.     154.        WEAVING    SCHOOL    AT    MULHEIM,     GERMANY. 

intended  for  pattern-making;  the  wood-working  shops  have 
been  built  out  into  the  court. 

In  the  basement,  under  the  cabinet-making  shop,  is  that  for 
turning;  and  vmder  the  pattern-making  room  is  that  for  metal- 
work ;  in  the  front  portion  of  this  story  are  a  store-room  for 
clay,  a  smelting  furnace,  heating  apparatus,  coal  bins,  gasom- 
eter, and  casting  room. 

The  School  for  x\pprentices,  at  Rouen  (Fig.  153),  furnishes 
an  example  with  extensive  workshops. 

This  school,  for  the  education  of  joiners,  pattern-makers, 
wood  and  metal  turners,  iron  workers,  locksmiths,  machinists, 


246 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


WATCH    AND    CLOCK    MAKING   SCHOOL,    PARIS. 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS.  247 

smiths,  engineers,  etc.,  was  founded  in  1878,  and  occupied  this 
new  building  in  1887. 

The  course  of  study  covers  three  years,  and  the  work  is  so 
arranged  that  pupils  spend  six  hours  daily  in  the  workshops, 
two  hours  in  drawing  practice,  and  two  hours  in  recitations. 

The  main  building,  of  three  stories,  contains  on  the  ground 
floor  workshops  for  locksmiths  and  machinists,  an  exhibition 
room,  and  the  director's  office.  On  the  first  floor  are  cabinet- 
making  shops  and  two  class  rooms,  and  in  the  second  story 
three  more  class  rooms  and  two  large  rooms  for  drawing. 

The  power  is  in  a  small  building  adjoining  the  main  one; 
opposite  this,  across  the  courtyard,  are  urinals,  water-closets, 
and  lavatories;  at  one  end,  the  court  is  enclosed  by  a  wall,  and 
at  the  other  by  that  part  of  the  building  which  contains  the 
dining  room  and  a  covered  hall.  Behind  the  main  building 
is  a  separate  one  for  forges  and  store-rooms. 

The  plans  of  the  Weaving  School,  at  Miilheim,  are  shown 
in  Fig.  154. 

This  contains  two  large  weave  rooms,  each  for  sixteen 
looms,  suitable  rooms  for  drawing  and  recitation,  and  apart- 
ments for  the  director.  The  main  portion  is  two  stories,  and 
the  two  corner  wino^s  are  three  stories  high. 

As  previously  noted,  many  French  schools  consist  of  noth- 
ing but  workshops,  and  such  buildings  present  but'  little  valu- 
able suggestions  in  planning;  the  architectural  treatment  given 
such  buildings  is  of  interest,  as  is  shown  by  the  illustration  of 
the  fa9ade  of  the  Watch  and  Clock  Making  School  in  Paris. 

In  the  industrial  schools  for  women  instruction  is  given  in 
drawing  and  in  hand  and  machine  sewing,  cutting,  press- 
ing, etc. 

To  treat  of  the  many  kinds  of  schools  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  England,  where  industrial  and  technical  instruc- 
tion is  given,  would  lead  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  into 
the  consideration  of  the  higher  institutions  of  technology,  etc., 
but  to  illustrate  the  admirable  arrangement  and  completeness 
of  equipment  of  such  technical  schools,  the  plans  of  the  Royal 


248 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


O&r  leu 


FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.     155.       ROYAL    WEAVING    SCHOOL    AT    CREFELD,    GERMANY. 


MANUAL    TRAINING    SCHOOLS. 


SECOND   FLOOR    PLAN. 
FIG.     156,        ROYAL    WEAVING    SCHOOL    AT    CREFELD,    GERMANY. 


250  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Weaving  School,  at  Crefeld,  Germany  (Figs.  155,  156),  are 
here  giv^en.  A  sketch  of  the  technical  education  in  English 
secondary  schools  is  given  in  Chapter  VII. 

Mr.  Edwin  P.  Seaver,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools, 
Boston,  Mass.,  in  his  report  for  1898,  after  remarking  upon 
the  immense  advance  made  during  the  past  ten  years  in 
public  premises  for  industrial  education  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  in  England,  says:  "It  has  indeed  been  said,  ap- 
parently on  good  authority,  that  if  the  United  States  were  as 
well  supplied  with  industrial  schools  as  are  some  parts  of 
Germany,  and  attendance  on  them  were  as  great,  there  would 
be  in  the  United  States  more  young  people  of  high-school 
age  under  industrial  instruction  than  there  are  now  under  aca- 
demic instruction.  Boston,  for  example,  would  have  more 
than  four  thousand  instead  of  the  eight  or  nine  hundred  now 
found  in  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  and  in  the  free 
evening  Industrial  Drawing  Schools.  The  schools  last  named 
correspond  in  character  to  man}'  of  the  industrial  schools  of 
Germany;  for  these  are  largely  engaged  in  teaching  the  appli- 
cations of  drawing  to  various  arts  and  crafts,  and  are  in  ses- 
sion evenings  and  Sundays. 

"The  time  may  not  be  far  off  when  industrial  conditions  in 
this  country  will  compel  our  people  to  pa}?^  more  attention  to 
industrial  education.  Then  we  may  expect  to  see  our  even- 
ing drawing  schools  enlarged  and  multiplied,  and  similar 
schools  added  for  teaching  various  other  applications  of 
science  and  art  to  industry." 


CHAPTER    X. 

TRAINING    SCHOOLS    FOR    TEACHERS. 

Schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  are  somewhat  outside 
the  scope  of  this  work,  as  they  have,  to  a  degree,  the  character 
of  collegiate  institutions;  but,  in  the  United  States  at  least, 
their  relation  is  so  intimate  with  the  elementary  schools,  and, 
as  they  are  sometimes  under  the  control  of  local  school  boards, 
it  appears  fitting  that  some  description  of  their  features  should 
be  given. 

In  the  United  States  such  institutions  are  called  "  normal 
schools,"  and  they  are  usually  State  institutions. 

The  plan  of  the  normal  school,  when  fully  developed,  has 
class  rooms  for  kindergarten,  primary,  and  grammar  grades, 
with  entrance  and  toilet  rooms  for  the  pupils  distinct  from 
those  for  the  students.  The  pupils  in  these  "  model  depart- 
ments," as  these  branches  of  normal  schools  are  called,  are 
not  a  picked  compan}-  of  children,  but  are  taken  without 
selection  from  districts  which  are  established  by  the  local 
school  committees.  The  aim  of  these  departments  is  to  afford 
actual  school  conditions,  and  to  give  to  the  students,  in  the 
upper  class,  an  opportunity  for  practical  application  of  the 
teacher's  work.  The  teachers  of  these  departments  are  nom- 
inated by  the  principal  of  the  normal  school,  and  are  elected 
by  the  city  school  committee.  Other  of  the  students  than 
those  especially  assigned  to  instruct  the  pupils  are  permitted 
to  observe  the  exercises. 

For  the  students  there  should  be  an  "  assembly  "  or  "  study 
room,"  with  single  desks  and  chairs  for  a  maximum  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  students.  Special  rooms  should  be  furnished 
for  instruction  of  the  students  in  geography,  mineralogy, 
zoology,  history,  literature,  "  pedagogy,"  and  languages;  there 
are  also  physical,  botanical,  and  chemical  laboratories,  and 
rooms  tor  instruction  in  drawing,  music,  and  manual  training. 

25' 


252 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


TRAINING    SCHOOLS    FOR    TEACHERS.  253 

A  well-appointed  gymnasium,  and  a  good-sized  libraiy  are 
properly  held  to  be  an  essential  feature  of  such  schools. 

In  the  basement  of  the  State  Normal  School,  at  Salem, 
Mass.  (Fig.  157),  are  located  the  heating  and  ventilating  ap- 
paratus, the  toilet  and  play-rooms  for  the  pupils  of  the  "model 
department"  schools,  a  well-equipped  gymnasium,  with  dress- 
ing room,  the  industrial  laboratory,  a  lunch  room,  and  store- 
rooms for  supplies. 

On  the  tirst  floor  are  toilet  and  cloak  rooms  provided  with 
individual  lockers  for  the  students  of  the  normal  school,  —  a 
system  of  clothing  disposal  which  we  have  seen  to  have  been 
ad  ^^ted  in  several  high  schools  recently  constructed.  Two 
outside  entrances  give  access  to  the  portion  of  the  building 
assisfned  to  normal  school  students.  In  each  winsr  is  an 
entrance  for  the  pupils  of  the  "model"  schools.  The  rooms 
for  these  schools  are  nine  in  number,  accommodate  over  three 
hundred  pupils,  and  are  entirely  distinct  from  the  space 
assigned  to  the  normal  school  proper;  the  stairways  to  the 
basement  are  arranged  to  be  used  by  the  pupils  of  the  depart- 
ments without  disturbance  to  the  students,  while  ready  com- 
munication between  the  two  departments  is  provided. 

On  the  second  floor  is  the  assembly  and  study  room,  60  b}'' 
85  ft.  On  this  floor  are  the  principal  office,  reception  room, 
teachers'  meeting  room,  with  toilet  room,  library,  supply,  reci- 
tation, and  work  rooms. 

The  third  floor  is  mainly  devoted  to  instruction  in  the 
sciences.  Here  are  the  rooms  and  laboratories  for  instruction 
in  physics,  chemistr}-,  botany,  geography,  mineralogy,  and 
zoology,  and  a  lecture  room,  with  seats  arranged  in  tiers. 
There  are  two  drawing  rooms  on  the  north  side. 

The  smaller  State  Normal  School,  at  North  Adams,  Mass. 
(Fig.  158),  is  designed  to  meet  similar  requirements,  but  the 
"model  department"  is  in  a  separate  building  on  the  same  lot 
of  land.  In  this  building  is  a  gymnasium  equipped  for  the 
Swedish  method  of  instruction. 

In  the  North  Adams  Normal  School  proper,  we  find  the 


254 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


< 

6    . 


TRAINING    SCHOOLS    FOR    TEACHERS. 


255 


cloak  and  toilet  rooms  on  the  first  floor,  as  in  the  Salem 
school;  but  on  this  floor,  since  the  "  model"  class  rooms  are 
elsewhere  provided,  four  natural  science  laboratories  are 
placed.  On  the  second  floor  are  an  assembly  hall,  the  office, 
libraries,  and  class  room  for  mathematics  and  languages.  In 
the  third  story  are  physical  and  chemical  laboratories,  draw- 
ing rooms,  and  class  rooms. 

In  the  Normal  School,  at  Lowell,  Mass.   (Fig.  159),  in  the 
same  State,  the  cloak  and  toilet  rooms  are  on  the  first  floor, 


STATE    NORiMAL    SCHOOL,    LOWELL,    MASS. 
Stickney  &  Austin,  Architects. 

as  in  the  other  two  schools;  for  the  "model"  departments  a 
kindergarten  class  room  only  is  provided,  the  other  "  models" 
being  furnished  in  adjacent  public  schools.  The  assembly  hall 
and  study  room  are  united  as  in  the  Salem  school;  and,  as  in 
that  school,  this  room  is  placed  on  the  second  floor. 

The  State  Normal  School  building,  at  New  Haven,  Conn. 
(Fig.  160),  as  here  shown,  is  but  a  portion  of  the  structure 
contemplated  for  the  future  needs  of  the  institution.     In  the 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


TRAINING    SCHOOLS    FOR    TEACHERS. 


257 


o 


258 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


plan  the  noticeable  points  of  difference  from  -the  plans  of 
the  normal  schools  given  above  are  due  to  the  fact  that 
some  of  the  requirements  in  Massachusetts  are  not  demanded 
in  Connecticut,  or  they  are  met  by  accommodations  in  the 
New  Haven  public  schools. 

The  main  building  is  155  ft.,  4  ins.  long,  with  an  extreme 
depth  of  70  ft.,  4  ins.  It  is  expected  that  wings  will  later  be 
built  projecting  from  the  rear  of  the  present  building,  which 
will  then  occupy  three  sides  of  a  hollow  square,  with  the  heat- 


STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL,    NEW    HAVEN,    CONN. 
Hartwell,  Richardson  &  Driver,  Architects. 

ing  plant  in  the  center.  This  proposed  extension  accounts  for 
a  disposition  of  the  staircases  that  would  otherwise  have  been 
extravagant.  The  clear  height  of  the  first  story  above  the 
street  is  12  ft.;  that  of  the  second,  13  ft. ;  while  the  third  is  the 
same  as  the  first,  except  that  the  lecture  room  and  class  room, 
which  open  together,  are  16  ft.  in  the  clear. 

But  little  of  the  basement  is  now  occupied.  One  room  is 
a  lunch  room.  Two  other  rooms,  which  may  be  thrown 
together,  are  used   for   manual   training,  while  the  remaining 


TRAINING    SCHOOLS    FOR    TEACHERS. 


259 


space  is  unassigned.  The  clothing  lockers,  which  are  now  in 
a  room  upon  the  first  floor,  are  to  be  placed  in  the  basement 
when  the  space  they  now  occupy  is  needed  for  class  rooms. 

There  will  then  be  upon  the  principal  floor  one  class  room, 
a  manual  training  room  of  the  same  size,  with  an  alcove 
for  the  convenience  of  the  instructor,  from  which  stairs  descend 
to  the  rooms  in  the  basement  devoted  also  to  manual  training. 


FIG.    161. 


FIRST   FLOOR   PLAN. 

WOMEN    teachers'    SEMINARY,    BERLIN,    GERMANY. 


In  the  floor  a  trap  door  opens  upon  an  inclined  plane,  through 
which  stock  and  other  articles  are  passed  from  the  basement 
to  the  room  above,  where  the  finer  work  is  to  be  done.  There 
are  also  two  recitation  rooms,  a  physical  laboratory,  with 
alcove,  storeroom,  and  closets;  a  lecture  room  of  the  same 
size,  with  alcove  and  a  women's  toilet  room.     This  toilet  room 


26o 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


has  no  direct  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  building,  and  is 
entered  by  a  passage  underneath  and  behind  one  of  the  main 
staircases.  The  men  teachers  have  their  toilet  room  in  the 
basement. 

In  the  second  story,  the  northerly  end  of  the  building  is 
occupied  wholly  by  one  class  and  one  recitation  room,  divided 
by  rolling  partitions.     Corresponding  to  these  in  position  at 


SECOND    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.  162.   WOMEN  teachers'  SEMINARY,  BERLIN,  GERMANY. 

the  opposite  end  of  the  building  are  two  class  rooms,  while 
the  librar}',  or,  as  it  is  designated  in  this  case, "  reading  room," 
is  placed  on  the  front,  with  a  length  of  about  55  ft.  (or  an 
extreme  length,  measuring  into  the  alcove  at  the  end,  of  65 
ft.),  and  a  depth  from  front  to  rear  of  25  ft.  Book  shelves  in 
alcove  form,  two  stories  in  height,  cover  the  rear  wall  opposite 


TRAINING    SCHOOLS    FOR    TEACHERS. 


261 


to  the  light.  This  library  and  reading  room  is  connected  with 
the  lecture  room,  the  opening,  8  ft.  wide,  between  is  fitted 
with  rolling  partitions.  The  second  story  also  contains  the 
principal's  office  and  reception  room,  a  teacher's  room,  and  a 


FIG.     163.       I^LAN    OF    WOMEN    TEACHERS'    SEMINARY,    AUXERRE,    FRANCE. 


retiring  or  emergency  room,  each  having  its  individual  toilet 
accommodation. 

In  the  third  story  are  the  chemical  and  biological  laboratories, 
each  with  large  storeroom  and  two  class  rooms.    Another  class 


262  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

room  opens  by  sliding  partitions  into  a  larger  lecture  room,  the 
two  having  an  extreme  length  of  73  ft.,  with  a  height  of  16  ft., 
as  previously  stated.  In  the  center,  at  the  rear,  is  a  kitchen  or 
cooking  school,  fitted  with  closets,  sinks,  dressers,  and  lockers, 
and  with  a  lift  running  from  the  basement. 

The  plans  of  a  Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  at  Berlin 
(Figs.  161,  162),  are  illustrative  of  the  principle  on  which 
such  institutions  are  conducted  in  Germany,  where  it  will  be 
seen  instead  of  the  academic  method  of  the  American  normal 
schools,  the  separate  graded  class  system  is  followed;  and  the 
plans  exhibit  no  variation  from  that  of  a  Realgymnasium. 

The  Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  at  Auxerre,  France 
(Fig.  163),  is  provided  with  dormitories  for  the  students;  and 
we  see  here  that  the  system  is  that  of  the  large  schoolroom, 
with  recitation  rooms,  laboratories,  etc.  "  Model  depart- 
ments "  are  provided  as  in  the  American  normal  schools. 


CHAPTER   XL 

HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION. 

An  architect  should  be  expected  to  so  plan  a  building  that 
radical  changes  in  construction  are  not  required  to  admit  the 
satisfactory  installation  of  a  system  for  heating  and  ventilation ; 
but  few  architects  have  had  the  technical  training  coupled 
with  the  special  experience  which  warrants  them  in  designing 
such  a  system  without  consultation  with  an  engineer  whose 
interest  in  the  work  is  not  commercial.  Where  a  system  has 
been  almost  paralleled  in  a  former  building  constructed  with 
such  expert  assistance,  an  experienced  architect,  if  he  has  an 
honest  and  competent  contractor,  may  accomplish  a  fairly 
good  result;  but,  even  under  such  condition,  the  work  would 
generally  be  brought  to  a  nicer  conclusion  rf  an  expert  were 
employed. 

Where  a  competent  expert  makes  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions, and  supervises  the  construction  of  such  a  system,  all 
competitors  for  the  work  are  put  upon  an  equal  footing;  and 
the  expert's  compensation  will  be  offset  to  the  owner,  if  not 
by  the  first  cost,  certainly  by  the  greater  economy  in  running 
and  maintaining  the  plant,  and  its  greater  efficiency  above  that 
of  a  system  installed  by  the  lowest  commercial  bidder  who 
uses  his  own  plans  and  specifications.  Expert  service  is 
rendered  primarily  for  the  client's  benefit,  and  if  a  client  is 
unwilling  to  pay  for  such  service,  the  choice  of  a  system  based 
upon  commercial  competition  is  all  that  he  can  fairly  expect 
his  architect  to  furnish.  In  such  a  contingency  the  following 
review  of  the  subject  of  the  heating  and  ventilation  of  schools 
may  be  of  service. 

In  American  schools  the  accepted  standard  of  air  supply  is 
30  cu.  ft.  per  minute  for  each  pupil,  which  can  be  heated,  in 
zero  weather,  to  70°  Fahr.,  which  is  the  maximum  temperature 
which  should  ever  be  permitted  in  class  rooms.     In  the  United 

263 


264  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

States  these  rooms  are  usually  overheated,  the  temperature 
ranging,  in  winter,  from  72°  to  76°  Fahr.  Authorities  would 
agree  that  68°  Fahr.  is  as  high  as  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the 
temperature,  and  that  even  66°  Fahr.  gives  a  comfortable 
condition  for  children. 

In  England  the  temperature  of  the  class  rooms  is  not  usually 
sufficiently  high.  In  that  country,  on  account  of  the  greater 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  a  lower  temperature  is  more 
comfortable  than  in  the  United  States;  but  the  temperature 
permitted  in  class  rooms  by  the  Board  of  Education  of 
England  and  Wales,  56°  to  60°  Fahr.,  would  seem  to  be  too 
low  for  health  as  well  as  comfort,  and  that  the  proper  tem- 
perature should  be  that  which  is  maintained  in  English 
hospitals,  64°  Fahr. 

There  are  two  systems  of  ventilation:  (i)  that  of  "gravity," 
in  which  the  air  movement  is  due  to  the  difference  in  density 
of  the  warmer  air  in  the  flues  and  of  the  colder  air  outside; 
(2)  the  mechanical  system,  in  which  the  air  is  moved  by  fans 
driven  by  steam  or  gas  engines  or  by  electric  motors. 

With  the  gravity  system  of  ventilation  a  vent  flue  heater 
should  be  set  just  above  the  outlet  from  each  room,  and  at  the 
top  of  each  outlet  there  should  be  fitted  a  tightl}-  closing 
damper  to  be  wholly  shut  when  the  building  is  not  occupied. 

There  are  two  systems  of  mechanical  ventilation:  that  by 
which  the  air  is  drawn  out  by  exhaust  fans  and,  that  by  which 
fresh  air  is  supplied  by  plenum  fans,  and  a  current  is  induced 
by  heat  in  the  several  vent  flues  which  are  carried  independ- 
ently through  the  roof.  In  more  recently  constructed  schools 
the  exhaust  fan  is  now  rarely  used,  and  then  only  for  special 
purposes  or  conditions. 

In  both  the  gravity  and  the  mechanical  systems  of  ventila- 
tion, the  movement  of  air  may  be  upward  or  downward. 
With  the  downward  movement  the  flues  are  carried  to  one  or 
more  large  aspirating  shafts,  which  are  either  constantly  heated 
or  fitted  with  exhaust  fans.  Both  systems  may  be  used  in  the 
same   building,  and  the  downward  system  is  especially  adapt- 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  265 

able  for  toilet-room  ventilation  to  the  brick  air  shaft,  which 
may  be  built  about  the  boiler  flue,  and  is  sometimes  a  con- 
venient expedient  for  freeing  a  large  room,  such  as  an 
assembly  hall,  from  the  passage  of  the  vent  ducts  of  the  class 
rooms  below  it.  With  downward  ventilation  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  the  underground  ducts  and.  the  base  of  the 
aspirating  shaft  free  from  dampness;  if  this  is  not  done,  the 
passage  of  the  air  will  be  seriously  checked,  if  not  absolutely 
blocked.  Where  ducts  change  direction  the  angles  and  cor- 
ners should  be  freely  rounded. 

The  several  systems  of  heating  may  be  classified  in  two 
groups,  —  that  which  may  be  described  as  "distributed"  heat- 
ing, and  that  which  is  known  as  "  central  "  heating. 

Distributed  heating  is  that  given  by  stoves  and  open  fire- 
places, and,  whether  by  one  or  the  other  method,  is  unsuitable 
for  schools.  With  stoves  it  is  impossible  to  give  tempered 
fresh  air  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  the  only  source  of  fresh  air 
is  through  cracks  or  by  the  opening  of  the  windows.  Not  only 
the  incidental  draughts,  but  the  waste  of  heat  and  its  uneven 
distribution  is  sufficient  objection  to  the  use  of  open  fireplaces 
in  heating  large  rooms  in  a  cold  climate;  and  if  they  are  the 
sole  means  of  ventilation,  the  flue  for  a  room  of  fifty-six  pupils 
should  have  an  area  fully  six  times  that  of  the  customary  8  by 
i2-in.  dimensions.  Where  fireplaces  are  used  as  means  of 
ventilation,  supplementary  to  separate  vent  flues,  one  is  likely 
to  pull  against  the  other;  sometimes  the  smoke  will  be  drawn 
into  the  room,  or  a  reverse  current  established  in  the  vent  flues. 
From  the  writer's  observation  the  fireplaces  used  so  generally 
in  English  schools  are  most  ineffective  as  a  ventilating  ex- 
pedient. 

There  are  two  general  S3^stems  of  central  heating,  —  the 
direct  and  the  indirect. 

In  direct  central  heating  coils  and  radiators  are  used,  either 
with  hot  water  or  steam. 

Indirect  central  heating  is  given  by  hot-air  furnaces;  by  coils 
or  radiators  through  which  the   outer  air  passes  directly  from 


266  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

openings  in  the  wall  immediately  adjoining  the  fixture,  and 
known  as  the  "  direct-indirect  "  system;  by  the  system  gener- 
ally called  "  indirect,"  in  which  coils  or  groups  of  pin  radiators 
are  placed  on  the  basement  ceiling,  encased  in  galvanized  iron, 
and  connected  with  pipes  to  take  air  from  outdoors  and 
deliver  warm  air^to  the  rooms;  and  by  the  plenum  fan  systems. 

There  are  three  such  fan  systems:  first,  that  with  central 
heating  coil,  where  the  temperature  is  regulated  by  mixing  the 
heated  air  with  the  cold  air  brought  directly  from  outdoors; 
second,  that  with  tempering  coil,  where  the  air  is  brought  to 
60°  or  70°  Fahr.,  and  the  temperature  for  the  several  rooms  is 
increased  by  the  passing  of  the  air  over  supplementary  radia- 
tors set  at  the  base  of  each  heat  duct  or  group  of  heat  ducts, 
and  there  provided  with  means  of  mixing  cold  and  heated  air; 
third,  that  with  double  air  ducts,  through  which  both  hot  and 
tempered  air,  passing  from  a  central  heating  chamber,  is 
delivered  at  the  base  of  the  several  heat  flues,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  at  the  flues  being  controlled  by  mixing  dampers. 

All  direct  heating,  whether  by  steam  or  hot  water  radiators 
or  coils,  is  unsuitable  for  school  work  unless  fresh  air  heated 
to  70°  Fahr.  is  furnished  by  a  plenum  fan.  Exhaust  fan  or 
heated  vent  ducts  alone  do  not  give  suitable  ventilation  with 
direct  heating,  as  the  cold  air  from  out-of-doors  is  drawn  in 
through  window  cracks,  etc.,  and  being  of  the  outside  tem- 
perature, produces  cold  draughts  in  its  passage  across  the  room 
to  the  vent  flues. 

The  direct-indirect  system  of  steam  heating  is  unsuit- 
able for  class  room  purposes,  as  a  suflScient  supply  of  properly 
heated  air  cannot  be  furnished  a  class  room  by  this  means. 

Heating  by  hot  air  furnaces  is  preferable  to  direct  heating 
if  without  a  plenum  fan  fresh  air  supply.  Furnace  heating  is 
not  advisable  in  schools  of  more  than  four  rooms,  and  is  not 
as  advantageous  as  indirect  heating  with  gravity  ventilation, 
or  still  less  satisfactory  than  a  well-designed  fan  system,  or 
that  of  direct  heat  with  air  supply  b}'  fan  when  provided  with 
proper  temperature  regulation  . 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  267 

With  hot  air  furnaces  there  is  always  the  possibility  of 
leakage  of  smoke  and  gas  into  the  air  suppl}^  to  the  rooms,  and 
there  is  besides  the  danger  of  overheating  the  radiating  sur- 
faces and  thus  causing  the  peculiar  taste  and  smell  to  the  air, 
characteristic  of  furnaces. 

In  large  schools  the  necessity  of  installing  several  furnaces, 
which  occupy  basement  space  useful  for  other  purposes,  and 
the  risk  from  the  number  of  fires  are  additional  objections  to 
their  use.  The  temperature  control  is  less  satisfactory,  and, 
when  the  air  supply  and  temperature  is  equally  good,  the  cost 
of  operation  is  certainly  no  less  with  furnaces  than  with  steam 
or  hot  water  heating. 

When  furnaces  are  used  in  schools  they  should  be  fitted 
witli  auxiliary  hot  water  coils  for  warming  the  vent  ducts  and 
to  heat  vestibules,  corridors,  wardrobes,  and  other  small 
rooms.  The  cold  air  box  of  the  furnace,  like  all  fresh  air 
ducts,  should  be  carried  above  ground  to  guard  against  pos- 
sible air  contamination.  Plaster  blocks,  set  in  iron  frames, 
plastered  on  the  outside,  and  smoothly  finished  within,  is  the 
best  form  for  cold  air  and  heat  ducts  which  are  carried  throug-h 
the  basement.  Galvanized  iron  ducts  are  not  absolutely  tight, 
and  their  temperature  is  conveyed  to  the  basement. 

Indirect  heating,  except  in  fan  systems,  whether  by  steam  or 
hot  water,  is  necessarily  united  with  gravity  ventilation.  This 
system  of  heating  is  less  certain  in  its  results,  and  necessitates 
a  somewhat  greater  consumption  of  fuel  than  do  any  of  the 
well-designed  systems  where  the  plenum  fan  is  used.  This 
lack  of  certainty  is  due  to  the  dependence  of  the  action  of 
the  system  upon  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind, 
and  upon  variable  atmospheric  conditions.  The  wind  may 
check  and  even  reverse  the  air  movement.  The  sizes  of  air 
inlets  must  be  ample  and  proportioned  for  a  velocity  of  about 
300  cu.  ft.  per  minute,  and  there  should  be  liberal  space 
between  the  pin  radiators,  whose  cold  air  boxes  should  be  as 
short  and  as  direct  as  possible.  The  extra  cost  of  fuel  by  the 
indirect  heating  above  that  b}^  direct  heating  comes  from  the 


268  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

necessity  of  heating  a  sufficient  air  supply  up  to  70°  Fahr. 
before  any  heating  effect  is  obtained.  With  indirect  heating 
and  gravity  ventilation  only,  the  standard  of  30  cu.  ft.  of  air 
per  minute  for  each  pupil,  with  a  temperature  ranging  between 
68°  and  70°  Fahr.,  cannot  be  certainly  maintained  when  the 
outside  temperature  rises  above  45°  Fahr.  At  such  times  the 
general  rule  that  windows  of  the  building  must  be  kept  closed 
has  to  be  broken,  so  that  fresh  air  may  be  admitted.  This  is 
an  unsatisfactory  method  of  air  supply,  especially  in  crowded 
city  districts. 

Indirect  heating,  with  gravity  ventilation  onl}',  should  not 
be  adopted  in  schools  of  more  than  ten  rooms,  as  the  only 
reason  for  the  use  of  this  system,  in  preference  to  a  mechanical 
system,  other  than  its  less  first  cost,  is  that  the  indirect  appa- 
ratus does  not  require  the  services  of  a  skilled  engineer.  A 
large  school  certainly  justifies  the  employment  of  a  skilful 
man,  whatever  the  S3^stem,  and  a  plenum  fan  system  insures 
a  definitely  directed  air  supply. 

A  plenum  fan  system,  without  direct  radiation  or  means  of 
controlling  the  temperature  of  the  air  independently  at  the 
several  outlets,  is  only  suitable  for  factories,  and  should  never 
be  used  for  schools. 

The  indirect  plenum  fan  systems  have  the  advantage  over 
the  system  of  tempered  fresh  air  supply  by  plenum  fan  with 
direct  heating,  that  the  radiators  or  coils  in  the  class  rooms 
may  be  omitted.  In  the  system  of  direct  heating  with  tem- 
pered air  supply  by  a  fan  system,  the  direct  radiation  serves 
to  keep-the  chill  from  the  outside  walls  during  the  night,  and 
so  aids  in  warming  the  rooms  more  quickly  than  in  systems 
where  the  fan  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  heating  as  well  as  the 
ventilating  apparatus.  Indeed,  aside  from  possible  dust  lodg- 
ment, the  esthetic  objection  to  radiators  is  the  onl}-  reason  for 
dispensing  with  direct  radiation  in  schools. 

With  system  of  heating  by  direct  radiation  and  air  supply 
by  fan,  the  fan  as  well  as  the  direct  heat  should  be  used  in  the 
early  morning  hours,  the  air  at  such  times  being  drawn  from 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  269 

the  building,  care  being  taken  that  this  supply  is  not  drawn 
from  the  toilet  rooms.  When  a  building  is  occupied,  what- 
ev^er  heating  system  is  used,  the  air  should  invariably  be  taken 
from  outside  the  building. 

While  the  heated  air  passes  through  the  radiating  surfaces, 
cold  air  may  be  made  to  pass,  by  mixing  dampers  in  regulated 
quantity,  underneath  these  surfaces,  such  dampers  being  desir- 
able for  all  well-designed  systems.  The  fan  system,  with 
tempering  chamber  supplemented  by  radiation  at  the  base  of 
the  vertical  heat  ducts,  and  indirect  heating  without  fan  have 
mixing  dampers  placed  at  the  base  of  the  heat  flues  that 
supply  air  to  each  room.  Mixing  dampers  are  made  in  vari- 
ous forms,  and  they  are  designed  for  either  automatic  or  hand 
control.  When  the  expense  can  be  aflbrded,  automatic  con- 
trol of  the  whole  heating  and  of  the  tempered  air  supply  is 
advisable;  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  such  delicate 
apparatus  requires  care,  and  that  such  control  is  not  automatic 
in  a  literal  sense.  The  operation  of  hand  control  for  mixing 
dampers  is  either  from  the  several  rooms,  from  the  corridors, 
or  from  the  basement.  Corridor  or  basement  locations  for 
such  control  are  preferable,  as  the  janitor  only  should  regulate 
the  temperature,  for  which  he  should  be  held  strictly  respon- 
sible. In  cold  weather,  when  classes  are  in  session,  no  excuse 
should  be  afforded  the  teacher  for  cooling  off  the  rooms  by 
opening  the  windows;  if  this  is  done,  heat  is  wasted,  and  the 
designed  flow  of  air  is  disturbed,  if  not  nullified. 

Dr.  J.  S.  Billings  suggests  that  a  modification  of  the  alarm 
thermometer,  used  in  greenhouses  to  give  warning  of  a  fall  of 
temperature,  might  be  applied  in  schools  to  insure  the  con- 
stant ringing  of  an  alarm  whenever  the  temperature  rises 
above  70°  Fahr.,  or  falls  below  d^""  Fahr. 

In  order  that  the  janitor  may  note  the  temperature  without 
entering  the  rooms,  class  rooms  in  the  later  Berlin  schools 
have  thermometers  set  in  the  corridor  wall  so  that  they  may  be 
read  from  each  class  room  and  from  the  corridor.  This  open- 
ing is  about  3  ins.  in  diameter  and  is  glazed  flush  with  the  wall. 


270  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

In  a  class  room,  28  by  32  ft.,  for  schools  two  or  three  stories 
high,  accommodating  fifty-six  pupils,  the  air  inlets  and  outlets 
for  indirect  radiation  should  be  5  sq.  ft.  Where  the  plenum 
fan  is  used,  the  air  outlets  remain  as  above,  but  the  inlets  are 
reduced  from  25  to  30  per  cent.  Under  ordinary  conditions, 
the  architect  may  give  the  maximum  areas  to  the  flues,  for  the 
volume  of  air  which  passes  through  can  be  regulated  by  damp- 
ers, and  if,  on  account  of  some  constructional  necessity,  he  wishes 
to  reduce  their  size,  he  should  seek  the  advice  of  an  expert. 

Inner  walls  only  should  be  used  for  air  outlets  for  winter 
ventilation,  and  these  outlets  should  be  set  as  close  to  the  floor 
as  possible.  With  all  indirect  heating  air  inlets  should  prefer- 
ably be  not  less  than  4  ft.  from  an  outside  wall;  while  it  is 
desirable  that  fresh  air  inlets,  used  in  conjunction  with  direct 
heating,  should  be  similarly  placed,  more  latitude  in  respect 
to  the  position  of  these  inlets  is  possible  where  this  system  is 
used.  Even  with  this  system  the  distribution  of  air  is  better 
where  the  inlet  is  not  closer  to  an  outside  wall  than  is  advised 
above.  To  avoid  draughts,  air  inlets  for  class  rooms  and 
assembly  halls  should  have  the  bottom  of  the  register  face 
about  8  ft.  above  the  floor.  In  small  rooms  the  air  inlet  may 
be  close  to  the  floor;  if  placed  in  the  floor,  the  inlets  are 
protected  with  difficulty  from  the  lodgment  of  dirt,  and, 
hence,  are  inadmissible  in  schools.  Foot  warmers  which  are 
not,  strictly  speaking,  air  inlets  are,  however,  desirable  fea- 
tures in  the  corridors. 

Summer  ventilation  is  not  always  provided  in  schools,  but 
when  it  is  used,  the  outlet  should  be  close  to  the  ceiling,  and 
the  opening  filled  with  a  register.  In  the  lower  openings  pro- 
vided for  winter  ventilation,  a  register  face  only  is  required, 
but  dampers  should  be  provided  for  closing  when  the  building 
is  unoccupied.  In  Birmingham  Hospital,  England,  the  vent 
outlets  are  faced  and  lined  with  glazed  tile  and  have  a  very 
satisfactory  appearance. 

Air  inlets,  in  some  cases,  need  to  be  fitted  with  diffusers  to 
thoroughly  distribute  the  air  about  the  room. 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  27 1 

The  filtering  and  washing  of  the  air  supply  for  schools  is 
desirable  in  those  cities  where  bituminous  coal  is  largely  used; 
in  the  Higher  Board  School,  Halifax,  England,  a  simple  and 
effective  apparatus  has  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  which 
consists  of  two  cylindrical  frames  belted  to  the  engine  that 
drives  the  fan,  upon  which  is  revolved  a  screen  of  coarse 
burlap,  which  is  kept  wet  and  washed  by  its  passage  through 
a  pan  of  water.  The  result  of  this  screening  is  satisfactory; 
the  sooty  air  of  the  city  leaves  almost  no  trace  of  dirt  even  in 
the  vent  ducts.  Similar  methods  of  filtering  and  washing  the 
air  supply  have  been  adopted  in  many  English  schools. 

The  movement  of  air  should  be  from  the  corridors  to  the 
class  rooms,  and  not  vice  versa.  This  desirable  direction  of 
the  air  is  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  against  hanging  pupils' 
clothing  in  the  corridors. 

The  water-closets  and  urinals  should  have  strong  ventilation, 
which  should  insure  a  constant  current  of  air  through  the 
fixtures  themselves  to  an  aspirating  shaft.  This  current  should 
be  so  strong  that  by  no  chance  the  air  of  the  toilet  rooms  shall 
pass  into  other  portions  of  the  building. 

Brick  ventilation  shafts,  built  without  offsets  or  horizontal 
divisions,  unless  of  greater  size  than  a  class  room  vent  duct, 
do  not  ordinarily  require  cowls;  but  cowls,  fitted  with 
louvers,  are  requisite  for  offsetted  brick  and  for  metal  shafts. 

At  the  present  time,  in  the  United  States,  steam  is  by  far  the 
most  popular  agency  for  school  heating,  certainly  for  buildings 
of  more  than  eight  rooms,  and  while  permitting  an  inexpen- 
sive motive  power  for  operating  fans,  pumps,  etc.,  it  lends 
itself  readily  to  the  distribution  of  heat  about  the  building, 
and  to  the  maintenance  of  an  unvarying  temperature  of  radiat- 
ing surfaces;  it  can  be  installed  to  meet  the  simplest  or  the 
most  complex  requirements  for  power,  heat,  etc. 

The  simplest  system  of  steam  heating  is  known  as  the 
gravity  system,  and  consists  of  a  closed  circuit  formed  by  the 
boiler,  the  supply  pipes  taken  off  the  top,  and  the  radiation, 
with  the  return  pipes,  carried   back  and  connected  near  the 


272  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

bottom  of  the  boiler.  In  this  system  the  steam  rises  to  the 
radiators  where  it  is  condensed,  and  the  condensed  water  falls 
back  to  the  water  level  in  the  return,  thence  seeking  the 
lowest  level  in  the  boiler.  The  lowest  point  of  any  radiation 
which  is  to  return  water  by  gravity  must  be  at  least  two,  and 
better  three  feet  above  the  water-level  in  the  boiler. 

All  heating  plants  should  be  arranged  so  that  all  direct 
radiation,  and  such  of  the  indirect  radiation  as  is  necessary  to 
heat  the  building  outside  of  school  hours,  may  be  operated 
with  a  gravity  return.  The  gravity  steam  system  is  well 
adapted  for  small  buildings,  particularly  with  the  gravity 
system  of  ventilation,  where  a  low  steam  pressure  of  10  lbs.  or 
less  is  all  that  is  required.  It  is  also  often  used  in  connection 
with  fan  systems  where  the  plant  is  arranged  to  operate  at  not 
over  20  lbs.  steam  pressure.  When  greater  power  is  required, 
the  pressure  on  the  heating  system  is  reduced  to  10  lbs.  or 
less,  and  the  water  of  condensation  cannot  flow  back  into  the 
boiler  which  is  at  a  higher  pressure;  in  such  cases,  and  also 
when  the  radiating  surface  is  below  the  water-line  of  the 
boiler,  the  condensed  water  is  discharged  into  a  tank  or  re- 
ceiver through  a  steam  trap,  from  whence  it  is  pumped  into 
the  boiler. 

While  the  expense  of  installing  a  hot-water  heating  system 
need  be  little,  if  an}^,  greater  than  that  of  a  steam  system,  more 
careful  installation  to  insure  the  return  of  water  to  the  boiler 
and  nicer  calculation  of  the  sizes  of  piping  is  required  for  the 
former  than  for  the  latter  system.  Hot  water  admits  of  some- 
what readier  temperature  control  for  direct  heating,  and  it 
is  probable  that  this  method  of  heating  will  be  more  generally 
used  in  American  schools  in  the  future  than  it  has  been  in  the 
past.  Several  of  the  later  New  York  City  schools  have  been 
equipped  with  a  combination  steam  and  hot-water  system. 
The  radiation  throughout  these  buildings,  including  the 
indirect  and  the  main  heaters,  is  heated  by  hot  water,  supplied 
from  one  or  more  large  heaters  in  the  basement,  in  which  the 
water  is  brought  to  the  desired  temperature  by  steam  coils. 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION. 


273 


The  heaters  are  all  set  above  the  boilers  to  insure  gravity 
return  of  the  condensation.  A  centrifugal  pump  aids  the 
circulation  of  the  water  through  the  radiation.  The  piping 
should  be  proportioned  to  give  sufficient  heating  for  night  use 
under  gravity  circulation. 

Hot-water  heating  systems,  with  fan  power  by  gas  engines, 
are  often  used  in  England,  even  in  the  largest  schools.  Gas 
engines  require  less  care  than  steam-engines;  and  as  the 
services  of  a  skilled  engineer  are  not  required,  and  any  intelli- 
gent man  can  run  them,  they  are  theoretically  desirable  for 
power  in  schools,  but  they  have  proved  disappointing  in  many 
cases,  being  noisy  and  not  of  durable  construction.  Such 
apparatus  must  be  further  perfected  before  they  can  be  recora.- 
mended  for  school  heating  and  ventilation. 

The  followino^  tables  of  boiler  and  boiler-flue  dimensions 
will  be  found  convenient  in  the  planning  of  schools;  a  boiler 
capacity  of  about  seven  horse-power,  commercial  rating,  is 
required  for  each  class  room  or  equivalent  enclosure. 

Dimensions  of  Boilers  and  Settings  for  Horizontal  Return 
Tubular  Boilers. 


Horse-power 

Diameter  of  shell 

Length  of  shell 

Number  of  3-in.  tubes 

Length  of  brick  setting,  overhang- 
ing fronts 

Length  of  brick  setting,  flush 
fronts 

Width  of  brick  setting  for  single 
boiler 

Increase  in  width  for  each  addi- 
tional boiler 

Length  of  grate 

Width  of  grate 

Vertical  distance  from  floor  to 
shell 

Vertical  distance  from  floor  to 
top  of  fronts 

Vertical  distance  from  floor  to 
water-line 

Increase  in  horse-power  for  each 
foot  added  to  the  length  of 
boiler 


27 

42" 

13-3" 

38 

40 
48" 
15-3" 

49 

52 
54" 
i6'-3" 
60 

67 
60" 
i6'-3" 
80 

96 
66" 

i7'-4" 
no 

iS'-3" 

i7'-6" 

i8'-6" 

i8'-6" 

19-7" 

i6'-6" 

i8'-9" 

19-9" 

i9'-9" 

20'-I0" 

I'-l" 

8'-i" 

8'-7" 

9'-i" 

9'-7" 

5'-ii" 

6'-?" 

6'-ir" 

7-5" 

7'-!!" 

3-6" 
3'-6" 

4'-o" 

4'-o" 

4'-6" 
4'-6" 

5-0" 
5'-o" 

5-6" 
5'-6" 

3'-9" 

3'-9" 

4'-o" 

4'-o" 

4'-o" 

T-r 

8'-i" 

S'-io" 

9' -4" 

9'-io" 

6'-T" 

6'-5" 

7'-o" 

7'_4" 

7'-8" 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

120 

72" 

1 7'-4" 
140 

r9'-7" 

20'- 10' 

lo'-i" 

8'-5" 
6'-o" 
6'-o" 

4'-o" 

io'-4" 

8'-o" 

8 


274  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Table  of  Approximate  Capacities  of  Chimneys  in  Boiler 
Horse-power. 


Height  of 

chimney  in  feet. 

V   l< 

w   .s 

...  t:  2 

.S"  c 

60 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

Side  0 
jroxim: 
ctive  a 

Commercial  horse-power. 

re  4) 

i8 

23 

25 

27 

0.97 

1.77 

16" 

2! 

35 

3« 

41 

1-47 

2.41 

19" 

24 

49 

54 

5« 

62 

2.08 

3-14 

22" 

27 

65 

72 

7« 

«3 

2.78 

3-98 

24" 

30 

84 

92 

100 

107 

113 

3.58 

4.91 

27" 

33 

115 

125 

133 

141 

, 

4-47 

5-94 

30" 

36 

141 

152 

163 

173 

182 

5-47 

7.07 

32" 

39 

183 

196 

208 

219 

6.57 

8.30 

35" 

42 

216 

231 

245 

258 

271 

7.76 

9.62 

38" 

48 

311 

330 

348 

36s 

10.44 

12.57 

43" 

For  direct  radiation  in  class  rooms  of  the  usual  dimen- 
sions for  the  grammar  grade  supplied  with  air  ventilation  at 
7o°Fahr.,  i  sq.  ft.  of  surface  is  required  for  each  60  cu.  ft.  of 
space  for  rooms  with  northerly  or  westerly  exposure,  and  80 
cu.  ft.  of  space  for  a  room  with  southerly  or  easterly  exposure. 
For  gravity  indirect  radiation  from  350  to  400  sq.  ft.  of  heating 
surface  is  required  for  each  class  room.  Vent  flue  heaters 
require  from  20  to  30  sq.  ft.  of  radiating  surface  for  each  class 
room. 

For  radiation  in  connection  with  fan  systems  no  general 
rules  can  be  given,  on  account  of  the  great  variation  of  the  air 
velocities,  and  of  the  distribution  of  surface  between  the  main 
and  supplementary  heaters  required  in  different  cases. 

For  furnace  heating  special  school  furnaces  only  should  be 
used,  and  no  furnace  should  be  expected  to  heat  more  than 
two  rooms.  A  24-in.  diameter  grate  is  required  for  one  room, 
and  a  30-in.  diameter  grate  for  two  rooms. 

In  well-ventilated  buildings  the  coal  consumption  for  each 
class  room  and  its  equivalent  enclosure  should  be  about  10  tons 
per  year. 

Twenty  years  ago  the  heating  and  ventilation  systems  used 
in  the  Swiss  schools  appear  to  have  been  superior  to  those 
then  found  in  any  other  country.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
Swiss  schools   have,  in  this    respect,  retained    their   relative 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  275 

superiority  to  the  other  schools  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
but  the  use  of  the  plenum  fan  in  the  ventilation  of  schools  has 
nowhere  been  so  perfected  as  in  the  United  States.  The 
warming  of  most  European  schools  is  by  stoves,  although  hot- 
air  furnaces  and  hot-water  or  steam  heating  have,  in  later 
years,  come  more  generally  into  use,  and  the  advantages  of  the 
fan  systems  are  becoming  better  recognized.  The  vent  outlets 
in  a  class  room  of  Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  Berlin,  accom- 
modating forty-six  pupils, have  an  area  of  .037  sq.  ft.  per  pupil; 
while  in  the  United  States  the  area  of  these  outlets  would  be 
10  sq.  ft.  per  pupil.  This  Berlin  building  is  warmed  by  direct 
radiation ;  there  is  no  special  supply  of  warmed  fresh  air  for 
each  room;  the  air  inust  come  from  cracks  in  the  windows,  or 
from  the  corridors  in  which  are  hung  the  pupils*  clothing. 

The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  England 
and  Wales  require  a  minimum  of  only  .017  sq.  ft.  of  air  inlet 
for  each  pupil. 

In  England  direct  radiation,  hot-water  heating,  combined 
with  open  fireplaces,  is  generally  found,  but  in  some  cases 
plenum  fan  systems  are  used. 

In  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  the  pupils' 
latrines,  or  water-closets,  are  usually  in  a  separate  building, 
which  is  seldom  ventilated  except  by  unheated  shafts  rising 
above  the  roof.  The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education 
of  England  and  Wales  state  that  "water-closets  within 
the  main  building  are  not  desirable,  and  are  only  required  for 
women  teachers."  Some  English  schools,  however,  have 
water-closets  in  the  main  building,  and  in  some  cases  they 
have  the  stack  arrangement  of  toilet  rooms,  with  the  mezzanine 
rooms  accessible  from  staircase  landings. 

In  the  United  States  the  pupils'  toilet  rooms  are  usually  in 
the  basement;  and  if  the  fixtures  are  properly  constructed,  and 
if  they  are  individually  ventilated  to  an  effective  aspirating 
shaft,  such  installation  is  no  menace  to  the  health  of  the 
occupants  of  the  building.  Basement  toilet  rooms  should 
always  be  shut  off  from  other  portions  of  the  building  by  self- 


276 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


closing  doors.  Sanitaries,  whether  within  or  without  the 
school,  should  be  heated.  With  all  systems  of  soil  disposal,  a 
strong  and  constant  ventilation  should  be  maintained  through 
the  fixtures  themselves  to  an  aspirating  shaft.  Such  shafts 
should  have  as  a  minimum  5  sq.  ins.  of  cross-section  area 
for  each  seat.  In  the  United  States  the  boiler  or  furnace 
chimney  is  generally  constructed  as  an  aspirating  shaft,  the 
smoke  flue  or  boiler  iron  furnishing  all  the  necessary  heat 
when  the  heating  apparatus  is  running;  and  when  it  is  not 
running,  a  small  stove  or  open  hard  coal  grate,  placed  at  the 
base  of  the  shaft,  will  give  a  fairly  satisfactory  air  movement, 
but  a  small  electric  fan  is  a  more  certain  source  of, power. 


FIG.    164.       CROSS   SECTION    OF    SLATE    URINAL. 

These  stoves  or  grates  should  have  grate  area  of  20  sq.  ins. 
for  each  schoolroom.  It  should  be  invariably  required  that 
the  janitor  should  keep  up  this  small  fire  when  the  heating 
apparatus  is  not  in  use. 

Every  plumbing  system  should  have  its  soil  pipe  subjected 
to  water  test  when  in  position;  this  pipe  should  be  extended 
above  the  roof.  Where  the  conditions  admit,  the  house  trap 
is  best  placed  outside  the  building  in  a  brick  manhole  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  admit  of  ready  access.  No  plumbing  fixture 
should  be  used  in  which  the  joint  is  not  of  metal  joined  to 
metal,  except  water-closets  with  porcelain  traps  and  joint 
below  the  water-line  of  the  trap.     With  this  type  of  closet. 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  277 

the  dripping  water  gives  warning  if  there  is  any  defect  in  the 
joint.  All  plumbing  fixtures  should  be  of  a  form  which  can 
be  readily  cleansed,  for  the  inner  surfaces  are  cleaned  by  the 
water  flush,  or  by  the  air  currents  moving  towards  the  aspirat- 
ing shaft,  but  the  outer  surfaces  become  coated  with  dirt 
which  soon  becomes  dust. 

Even  more  cleansing  is  required  for  urinal  bowls  than  for 
water-closets.  A  sloping  slate  slab,  provided  with  ample 
means  of  ventilation  at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  164,  and 
with  an  automatic  hot  and  cold  flushing  apparatus,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  165,  166,  has  proved  to  be  suitable  and  cleanly;  and 
since  it  has  less   surface  to  be  cleansed,  and  as  it  is  subject  to 


FIG.    165.        FLUSHING    TANK    FOR    URINALS. 

a  strong  internal  air  current,  this  fixture  is  preferable  to  urinal 
bowls,  unless  the  latter  are  separately  ventilated  and  kept 
scrupulously  clean. 

The  back  slabs  of  urinal  constructions  should  have  a  slope 
of  I  in  10,  and  the  foot  slab  should  incline  inwards  i  in  20. 
All  joints  of  the  slate  work  must  be  waterproof.  The  urinals 
most  approved  in  England  are  of  glazed  earthenware  with- 
out bowls.  They  have  the  advantage  over  slate  that  they 
cannot  be  written  upon,  but  they  occupy  more  space,  and,  as 
now  constructed,  they  are  not  ventilated  through  the  fixture. 
When  urinal  bowls  are  used,  they  should  each  be  ventilated 
to  a  warm  flue.     Italian  marble   is  extremely  absorbent,  and 


278  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

should  not  be  used  in  connection  with  any  plumbing  fixtures; 
slate  is  much  to  be  preferred,  and  Knoxville  marble  is  better 
than  slate. 

To  avoid  the  spread  of  skin  diseases,  set  bowls  should  not 
be  used  in  schools;  sinks  fitted  with  self-closing  faucets  or 
with  a  row  of  small  nozzles,  so  that  the  pupils  shall  wash  in 
running  water,  should  be  provided.  Drinking  fountains 
arranged  on  the  same  principle  are  also  worthy  of  consid- 
eration. 

Brick  latrines  may  be  designed  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
easily  kept  clean  and  readily  and  effectively  ventilated  to  an 
aspirating  shaft,  but  unless  very  carefully  constructed  there  is 


FIG.     166.       SECTION    OF    PERFORATED    SUPPLY 
PIPE    AND    SLATE    TROUGH. 

danger  of  pollution  of  the  ground  by  leakage;  their  use, 
therefore,  cannot  be  advised  except  when  they  are  placed  in 
a  separate  building. 

The  cement  used  in  the  construction  of  brick  latrines  should 
be  Portland  only;  they  should  be  thoroughly  plastered  outside 
and  in,  and  given  a  final  coat  of  clean  cement,  smoothly  hand 
floated  and  covered  from  the  air  until  it  has  set  perfectly  hard. 
The  latrine  should  have  a  lifting  cover,  and  the  under  side  of 
all  woodwork  should  be  lined  with  sheet  lead.  The  seats 
should  be  self-closing.  Latrines  should  have  automatic  flush- 
ing attachments  arranged  to  flush  every  two  or  three  minutes, 
and  should  be  provided  with  a  4-in.  standpipe,  which  should 
be  removed  just  before  recess  by  the  janitor,  to  give  a 
thorough   flushing  and  change  of  water.     The  latrines  must 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  279 

always  be  connected  with  an  ample  vent  shaft,  which  must  be 
kept  constantly  heated  summer  and  winter. 

Iron  water-closet  ranges  may  be  fitted  with  effective  under- 
seat  ventilation;  but  portions  of  the  exterior,  in  the  types  now 
on  the  market,  are  not  easil}'  accessible  for  cleaning,  and  the 
enameled  surface  is  apt  to  scale  from  the  iron.  There  is  also 
objection  to  ranges  for  other  than  practical  or  hygienic  reasons. 
Separate  water-closets  are  to  be  preferred  for  all  except,  pos- 
sibly, primary  schools.  School  water-closets  should  be  fitted 
with  a  general  automatic  flush,  as  well  as  with  an  individual 
flush  for  each  closet.  An  under-seat  vent,  preferably  of  three 
inches  clear  diameter,  should  be  carried  from  each  closet  to 
a  warm  flue  of  the  minimum  area  noted  above  or  better  of 
capacity  equal  to  the  area  of  the  vents  of  all  the  closets.  There 
should  be,  as  minimum  requirements,  one  water-closet  for 
every  fifteen  girls;  for  boys  there  are  provided  one  urinal  for 
every  eighteen,  and  one  water-closet  for  every  twenty-five. 
For  a  school  without  sewer  connections,  earth  closets  are  the 
best  expedient.  Thorough  under-seat  ventilation  is  requisite 
for  these,  as  for  all  other  closets;  and  they  should  be  in  a 
separate  and  heated  building. 

Earth  closets,  with  removable  mfetat  pans,  are  preferable  to 
the  so-called  "  dry  systems,"  by  which  the  soil  is  reduced  by 
heat  to  powder,  for  if,  with  a  dry  system,  the  draught  of  the 
aspirating  shaft  is  at  any  time  defective,  or  if  it  is  not  main- 
tained by  the  janitor,  there  may  be  a  reverse  current  which 
will    permit  the   powdered   matter    to    pervade  the   building. 

Where  brick  latrines  or  iron  ranges  are  used,  a  disagreeable 
odor  will  result  if  there  is  a  reverse  current  from  the  aspirat- 
ing shaft,  but  the  deleterious  particles  are  damp  and  cannot 
mix  with  the  air. 

The  barrel  sj'stem,  which  is  used  in  some  European  coun- 
tries, is  objectionable,  as  the  receptacles  are  awkward  to 
handle,  and  their  large  size  does  not  necessitate  frequent 
removal  of  the  soil,  as  when  boxes  of  moderate  size  are  used. 

Privy  vaults,  even  in  separate  buildings,  should  be  absolutely 


28o 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


discarded,  and  cesspools  should  never  be  used  to  receive  the 
drainage  from  the  pupils'  toilet  rooms,  except  where  the  area 
of  the  adjoining  grounds  is  so  great  as  to  make  it  unnecessary 
to  consider  the  possibility  of  ground  pollution. 

The  first  school  baths  were  established  in  Goettingen,  in 
1886,  and  they  were  so  successful  that  they  have  been  widely 
introduced  in   Germany,  and    many   of  the   large   elementary 


•iKU  enncMicc 


FIG.     167.       GYMNASIUM    AND    PLUNGE    BATH,     BASEMENT    OF    BIRCHFIELD 
ROAD    BOARD    SCHOOL,    LIVERPOOL,    ENGLAND. 

schools  of  that  country  are  now  equipped  with  them.  Fig. 
168  shows  the  arrangement  of  such  bath  rooms  in  Gemeinde- 
schule  No.  204,  Berlin. 

Baths  have  also  been  provided  in  some  of  the  Swiss  schools, 
in  the  Paris  schools,  and  very  generally  in  those  of  the 
Scandinavian  countries.  In  all  Swedish  schools,  within  walk- 
ing distance  of  the  sea,  instruction  in  swimming  is  obligatory. 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION. 


281 


In  Stockholm,  on  stated  days,  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the 
first  of  September,  the  Municipal  Baths  are  reserved  for  the  use 
of  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  they  are  taught  to  swim. 
Plunge  baths  have  been  introduced  in  some  of  the  Ensjlish 
schools  (Fig.  167).  The  pupils  are  generally  required  to  take 
a  shower-bath  before  using  the  tank,  but,  even  when  the 
utmost  care  is  given  to  cleanliness,  the  simple  iron  piping 
pierced  with  holes  and  rubber  hose  used  in  the  German  and 
other  European  schools  is  more  hygienic  than  the  plunge  baths, 
especially  for  city  schools.  The  fittings  of  the  German  bath- 
ing rooms  are  very  simple  and  inexpensive;  the  floors  are  of 
concrete  or  asphalt,  covered  with  wooden  slats.    In  some  cases. 


FIG.    168.       BATHING    ROOMS    IN    A    BERLIN    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL. 

in  the  elementary  schools,  each  girl  bathes  in  a  separate  room, 
and  in  some  cases  all  bathe  together,  the  older  girls  wearing 
bathing  dresses.  The  boys  always  use  a  large  common  room. 
These  simple  appointments  answer  all  essential  purposes. 

The  first  American  school  in  which  bathing  facilities  were 
provided  was  the  High  School  of  Scranton,  Penn.;  the  Paul 
Revere  School  in  Boston,  Mass.,  was  the  next  equipped  in 
this  manner;  the  result  of  the  latter  experiment  has  led  to 
the  like  equipment  in  other  Boston  schools.  The  installation 
in  the  Paul  Revere  School  is  described  in  the  report  for  1899 
of  the  school  committee  of  that  city  as  follows:  — 


282  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

"  This  school  is  located  in  one  of  the  most  congested 
sections  of  the  city,  inhabited  by  a  dense  population,  consisting 
mainly  of  Hebrews  and  Italians,  with  a  liberal  percentage  of 
other  nationalities. 

"It  was  fitting,  therefore,  that  in  this  crowded  section  should 
first  be  tried  the  experiment  of  school  baths.  Two  sets  were 
installed  in  the  new  Paul  Revere  School,  one  for  each  sex,  at 
opposite  ends  of  the  basement,  which  are  open  every  school- 
day.  On  the  girls'  side  there  are  ten  individual  compartments, 
each  containing  a  seat  and  a  spra3\  These  compartments  are 
of  slate  on  three  sides,  with  the  entrance  screened  by  a  rubber 
curtain  hung  from  rings,  which  can  be  drawn  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  occupant.  There  are  also  in  the  same  room  thirty 
dressing  closets,  each  containing  a  seat,  hooks  for  clothing, 
and  provided  with  a  self-closing  blind  door.  The  floor  is  of 
concrete,  covered  with  movable  slatted  walks,  made  in  short 
sections.  The  "  Gegenstrom"  system  is  in  use,  whereby  the 
temperature  of  the  water  may  be  accurately  regulated,  and  a 
matron  is  in  daily  attendance. 

"  No  individual  accommodations  are  provided  for  the  boys, 
the  showers  being  grouped  in  a  space  about  10  by  15  ft.,  so 
that  twelve  pupils  may  bathe  at  the  same  time.  The  remainder 
of  the  room  is  used  for  dressing  purposes,  an  oaken  bench 
running  along  two  sides  of  the  walls,  above  which  are  hooks 
for  clothing.     This  room  is  in  charge  of  the  janitor. 

"  Soap  and  towels  are  furnished  without  expense  to  the  pupils. 
The  arrangements  for  the  use  of  these  accommodations  are 
such  as  to  afford  an  opportunity  to  every  pupil  to  bathe  once 
a  week  throughout  the  school  year,  but  this  is  not  compulsory. 
A  certain  time  for  bathing  is  assigned  each  class,  when  those 
pupils  who  so  desire  are  given  an  opportunity  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  facilities  described. 

"  Pupils  in  the  grammar  as  well  as  the  primary  school  are 
admitted  to  these  privileges  with  the  exception  of  those  who 
are  too  young  to  undress  and  dress  themselves  without  con- 
siderable assistance. 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  283 

"  Between  one  hundred  and  twenty-live  and  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pupils  bathe  daily,  and  the  success  of  the  experiment,  as 
it  is  termed,  seems  assured.  '  The  estimated  expense  of  con- 
ducting the  baths,  including  the  salary  of  the  matron,  soap, 
towels,  laundry,  and  heat,  is  about  $85  per  month." 

An  equipment  such  as  that  of  the  Paul  Re\  ere  School, 
while  excellent,  is  too  expensive  for  general  adoption,  and  the 
German  method  will  probably  be  that  used  when  the  habit  of 
school    bathinor    becomes    established    in    American    schools. 

o 

The  only  especially  desirable  improvements  on  the  German 
apparatus  is  the  use  of  mixing  valves,  which  permit  the  flow 
of  cold  water  only  when  the  water  is  first  turned  on. 

The  introduction  of  school  bathing  will  do  much  to  mitigate 
the  "  school  smell,"  and  will  be  of  great  hygienic  advantage 
to  the  community.  Their  use  will  be  generally  voluntary  with 
the  pupils,  but  the  teacher  should  be  empowered  to  require 
that  the  bathing  of  certain  of  the  pupils  should  be  compulsory. 

It  should  be  better  recognized  than  it  is  by  school  com- 
mittees that  in  a  well-appointed  school  the  faithfulness  and 
knowledge  of  the  janitor  is  the  most  important  factor  in  main- 
taining the  health  arid  comfort  of  the  inmates.  Janitors  are 
too  often  found  to  be  lacking  in  one  or  the  other,  or  both  of 
these  qualities;  and  the  consequences  are  not  only  unnecessary 
discomfort,  waste  of  fuel,  injury  of  apparatus  and  fixtures, 
but  sickness  and  death.  Twenty-five  years  ago  Mr.  Philbrick, 
Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Boston,  Mass.,  recom- 
mended that  the  janitor  service  of  the  schools  of  that  city 
should  be  placed  under  the  control  of  a  chief  who  should 
have  full  power  of  appointment  and  removal.  This  recom- 
mendation has  not  been  followed. 

The  School  Board  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  is  exceptional  among 
those  of  the  United  States  in  systematizing  and  controlling 
the  employment  of  janitors,  and  to  that  end  it  has  adopted  the 
following  rules :  — 

Rule  i.  The  janitors  of  the  several  school  buildings  shall 
be  under  the  direct  supervision  and  control  of  the  business 


284  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

manager,  and  are  required,  during  the  session  of  the  school,  to 
promptly  comply  with  the  requests  of  principals. 

Rule  2.  They  shall  keep  the  school  buildings,  water- 
closets,  basements,  and  out-houses  thoroughly  free  and  clean 
from  lead-pencil  and  chalk  marks.  They  shall  sweep  the 
schoolrooms,  cloak  rooms,  and  halls,  and  thoroughly  dust  the 
woodwork  and  furniture  thereof  after  each  sweeping.  All 
sweeping  and  dusting  shall  be  finished  thirty  minutes  prior  to 
the  opening  of  the  school  session.  They  shall  have  possession 
of  the  rooms  not  later  than  forty-five  minutes  after  the  close 
of  the  afternoon  session.  They  shall  dust  the  walls  of  the 
schoolrooms  and  of  the  halls  as  often  as  may  be  necessary-. 
They  shall  scrub  the  floors  and  wash  the  woodwork,  windows, 
and  transoms  as  often  as  they  may  be  directed  to  do  so  by  the 
business  manager.  They  shall  keep  the  school  yards  clean 
and  all  the  walks,  both  inside  and  outside,  belonging  to  the 
school  grounds,  well  swept  and  free  from  snow,  and  when 
covered  with  ice,  said  walks  around  the  building  shall  be  well 
covered  with  sand  and  sawdust. 

Rule  3.  Each  janitor  shall  open  the  basement,  or,  when 
there  is  no  basement,  the  hall  of  his  or  her  building  so  as  to 
admit  the  pupils  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  one  half 
hour  before  the  opening  of  the  schools  in  the  afternoon  during 
the  inclement  weather.  In  pleasant  weather  the  school  build- 
ings shall  be  open  for  the  admission  of  pupils  thirty  minutes 
before  the  opening  of  the  morning  session,  and  fifteen  minutes 
before  the  opening  of  the  afternoon  session. 

Rule  4.  The  janitors  shall  have  the  exclusive  control  of 
th^  heating  apparatus,  under  the  direction  of  the  business 
manager,  and  they  shall  be  held  responsible  to  the  board  for 
any  damage  to  the  same  resulting  from  carelessness  or  neglect. 
They  shall  report  promptly  any  defects  in  the  heating  appa- 
ratus, furnaces,  stoves,  and  stovepipes  to  the  business  manager. 
In  school  buildings  heated  by  stoves,  the  janitor  shall  supply 
fuel  for  said  stoves  as  directed  by  the  teacher,  and  shall  keep 
the  stove  well  blacked. 


HEATING,    VENTILATION,    AND    SANITATION.  285 

Rule  5.  They  shall  give  special  attention  to  the  ventilation 
of  the  schoolrooms,  halls,  and  basement,  under  the  direction 
of  the  principals  and  the  business  manager.  They  shall  fasten 
loose  seats  to  the  floor,  glaze  windows,  when  necessary,  keep 
doors  in  repair,  and  keep  the  window  curtains  in  good  order. 
They  shall  wash  and  fill  with  ink  the  ink-wells,  when 
requested  to  do  so  by  teachers.  They  shall  present  all  requisi- 
tions for  supplies  at  the  office  of  the  business  manager.  They 
shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  correctness  of  all  receipts 
signed  by  them  for  coal  or  other  supplies  delivered,  and  shall 
perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  required  of  them,  not 
inconsistent  with  the  duties  herein  prescribed. 

There  may  be  other  cities  of  the  United  States  in  which 
organization  of  janitor  service  like  that  in  Toledo  has  been 
established,  but  if  so  it  is  unknown  to  the  writer. 

There  should  be  added  to  these  rules  more  definite  instruc- 
tions in  regard  to  the  cleaning  of  the  buildings,  and  the 
janitors  should  be  required  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  class 
rooms  not  higher  than  68°  Fahr.  or  lower  than  66°  Fahr.,  and 
to  make  record  of  the  outside  temperature  as  well  as  of  that 
in  all  portions  of  the  building,  and  a  record  of  the  amount  of 
coal  consumed  each  day. 

The  regulations  for  the  schools  of  Saxony  require  that  the 
buildings  shall  be  swept  and  dusted  throughout  daily  and 
scrubbed  at  least  four  times  a  year,  and,  if  possible,  oftener; 
during  the  holidays  a  thorough  house-cleaning  with  white- 
washing and  tinting  of  walls  is  required,  and  at  an  early  date, 
so  that  the  building  shall  be  thoroughly  dry  at  the  beginning 
of  the  next  term.  After  each  sweeping  the  seats  must  be 
wiped  off,  and  walls,  etc.,  thoroughly  dusted.  At  the  close  of 
school  hours,'  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer,  windows  and 
doors  have  to  be  opened. 

It  would  be  advantageous  for  the  health  of  American  school 
children  if  such  regulations  of  janitor  service  were  generally 
adopted  and  rigorously  obeyed. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL. 

Section  i.     THE   WORK   TO  BE  DONE  IS  TO  {a) 

Furnish  all  materials  herein  specified,  except  such  as  are 
specified  to  be  supplied  by  owner,  and  erect  and  complete, 
with  materials  of  the  first  quality  and  with  workmanship  of 
the  best  character,  unless  specified  to  be  otherwise  constructed, 
and  all  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  architect,  the  (Blank)  School 
upon  a  site  on  (Blank)  and  (Blank)  streets,  (City),  (State): 
(i)  in  conformity  with  these  specifications;  (2)  with  the  draw- 
ings marked  (here  quote  in  full  the  title  given  the  drawings) 
and  numbered  i  to  ( — )  inclusive,  furnished  by  said  (here  give 
in  full  the  name  of  the  architect  and  his  business  address)  who 
is  meant  whenever  the  word  "architect"  is  used  in  these  speci- 
fications, and  said  drawings  are  to  be  known  as  "  contract 
drawings";  (3)  with  such  further  detail  drawings  as  the 
architect  may  judge  to  be  requisite  to  further  explain  the 
requirements  of  certain  portions  of  the  work,  and  concerning 
which  requirements  the  contractor  shall  inform  himself;  and 
he  shall  call  upon  the  architect  for  said  drawings,  giving  him 
reasonable  time  for  their  preparation;  (4)  with  all  orders  in 
writing  of  the  architect  when  approved  by  the  owner,  increas- 
ing or  diminishing  or  making  change  in  any  part  of  the  work 
contemplated  by  this  contract;  (5)  with  all  directions  relating 
to  the  work  given  by  the  architect  as  interpretations  of  the 
requirements  of  the  drawings  and  specifications. 

The  requirements  of  said  specifications,  drawings,  detail 
drawings,  orders  of  and  directions  by  the  architect  shall  be 
the  requirements  of  the  contract  for  said  building,  and  any 
work  done  or  material  furnished  contrary  to  these  require- 
ments must  be  replaced  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor,  with 
work  and  materials  satisfactory  to  the  architect  if  he  so 
requires. 

386 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  287 

(<^)  The  contractor  is  to  keep  himself  fully  informed  as  to 
the  size,  shape,  and  position  of  all  openings  and  special 
accommodations  required  for  heating  and  ventilating  appa- 
ratus, plumbing,  steam  pipes,  tubing,  wiring,  boxing,  and 
other  things;  and,  in  the  absence  of  special  drawings  or 
instructions  upon  these  several  points,  shall  obtain  from  the 
architect  such  drawings  or  instructions  before  proceeding  with 
any  work  which  is  affected  by  such  requirements. 

(c)  The  work  is  to  be  promptly  carried  out  and  the  whole 
is  to  be  completed  on  or  before  (date  of  completion). 

{d)  All  regulations  of  law  or  public  authorities,  controlling 
or  limiting  the  method  or  materials  to  be  used,  or  the  actions 
of  those  employed  in  doing  the  work,  are  to  be  carefully 
observed  by  the  contractor  as  a  part  of  this  contract,  and  all 
necessary  permits  are  to  be  taken  out,  and  all  notices  required 
are  to  be  given  by  him. 

(e)  The  contractor  shall  not  assign  or  sublet  the  work 
unless  with  the  consent  of  the  architect  in  writing;  he  shall 
keep  the  control  and  charge  of  the  work  and  of  every  part 
thereof,  and  give  his  personal  supervision  thereto;  he  shall 
keep  a  competent  foreman  always  present  when  anything  is 
being  done  on  the  work;  and  he  shall  allow  all  other  persons 
doing  work  for  the  owner  free  access  to,  and  not  interfere  with 
them  in  their  work,  and  shall  render  them  all  necessary 
assistance. 

(y)  The  contractor  shall  employ  a  competent  engineer, 
who  shall  lay  out  the  work  and  shall  establish  all  lines  upon 
batterboards,  and  shall  indicate  grades;  the  contractor  shall 
furnish  substantial  and  convenient  batterboards,  shall  maintain 
the  same,  shall  have  the  layout  tested  from  time  to  time  by 
said  engineer,  and  shall  be  responsible  for  all  damage  arising 
from  any  disturbance  of  the  same. 

(^)  The  contractor  shall  follow  figure  dimensions  in  prefer- 
ence to  scale  dimensions  in  all  drawings,  and  in  the  case  of 
any  discrepancy  between  the  figures,  or  the  figures  and  scale, 
or  the  drawings  and  specifications,  the  matter  is  to  be  sub- 


288  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

mitted  to  the  architect  for  adjustment,  and  any  work  done  by 
the  contractor  before  such  adjustment  is  made  shall,  if  the 
architect  so  requires,  be  replaced  by  work  satisfactory  to  him. 

(>^)  The  contractor  shall  leave  an  unobstructed  way  along 
public  and  private  ways  for  travelers,  street  cars,  and  teams, 
and  for  access  to  hydrants;  from  the  beginning  of  the  twilight 
through  the  whole  of  every  night  maintain,  near  all  places  in 
the  public  ways  obstructed  or  made  unsafe  by  him,  sufficient 
lights  to  protect  travelers  in  such  ways  from  injury;  provide 
proper  walks  for  travelers  over  and  around  such  places;  pro- 
vide and  use  all  other  lights,  fences,  guards,  and  watchmen  on 
and  about  the  work;  provide  all  necessary  bridges  and  ways 
for  access  to  property  where  the  existing  access  is  cut  off  by 
him,  and  see  that  the  neighboring  residents  are  not  unneces- 
sarily inconvenienced;  take  all  proper  precautions  to  protect 
persons  and  property  from  injury  by  the  carrying  on  of  the  work. 

(/)  The  contractor  shall  replace  or  put  in  good  condition 
any  tree,  or  public  or  private  way,  or  sewer  or  drain,  or  water, 
gas,  or  other  pipe,  or  catch-basin,  wire,  building,  fence,  or 
other  structure  interfered  with  b}'  him,  and  not  required  to  be 
removed  under  this  contract. 

(y)  The  contractor  shall  maintain  the  flow  in  all  water- 
courses, sewers,  drains,  and  pipes  interfered  with  by  him,  or 
convey  the  flow  in  covered  channels  to  a  suitable  point  of 
discharge,  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  flow  upon  or  hinder  the 
work,  or  cause  any  nuisance. 

(>^)  When  for  any  reason  the  work  is  suspended,  the  con- 
tractor shall  protect  all  the  work,  and  the  roadways  and  side- 
walks shall  be  left  by  him  unobstructed,  and  in  a  safe  and 
satisfactory  condition. 

(/)  The  contractor  shall  furnish  and  lay  all  water  pipes,  gas 
pipes,  and  drains  from  inside  the  walls  of  the  building  to,  and 
connect  the  same  with,  the  street  mains;  shall  make  all  appli- 
cations for  and  pay  all  charges  for  such  connections,  and  shall 
pay  for  the  use  of  water  required  for  anything  in  connection 
with  any  work  on  the  building  until  the  completion  thereof. 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN   AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  289 

(/«)  The  contractor  is  not  to  furnish  or  install  the  plumbing, 
heating,  or  ventilating  apparatus,  or  the  wiring  for  the  electric 
work,  or  the  movable  furniture;  but  the  contractor  is  to  do  all 
jobbing  and  cutting,  not  only  that  which  is  necessary  to  fulfil 
all  requirements  of  this  contract,  but  that  required  in  connec- 
tion with  the  work  of  installing  the  plumbing,  heating  and 
ventilating  apparatus  (and  the  electric  work).  No  cutting 
shall  be  done  without  permission  of  the  architect. 

(^n)  The  contractor  shall  furnish  and  maintain  temporary 
doors  and  cotton  screens  for  all  openings  on  building,  and 
protect  the  work  from  injury  from  the  weather  and  from 
water,  frost,  accident,  or  other  cause,  and  repair  any  such 
injury;  shall  make  good  any  defect,  omission,  or  mistake  in 
the  work  within  such  time  as  shall  be  required  in  any  notice 
so  to  do,  signed  by  the  architect  and  given  to  the  contractor, 
or  mailed  to  him  at  the  business  address  stated  by  him  in  his 
proposal,  whether  so  given  or  mailed  during  the  progress  of 
the  work  or  after  its  completion,  and  whether  any  inspection 
or  approval  of,  or  payment  for  the  work,  or  any  part  thereof, 
may  have  been  made,  or  certificate  for  such  payment  given. 

(o)  The  contractor  shall  take  charge  of  and  be  liable  for 
any  loss  of  or  injury  to  any  materials  delivered  on,  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  work,  to  be  used  thereon,  whether  furnished 
by  the  owner  or  otherwise;  notify  the  architect  as  soon  as  any 
such  materials  are  so  delivered,  and  furnish  men  to  handle 
them  for  examination  by  the  architect  or  his  assistants;  and 
keep  trimmed  up  in  piles,  so  placed  as  not  to  endanger  the 
work,  all  such  materials  and  all  refuse,  rubbish,  and  other 
materials  not  removed. 

(^)  The  contractor  shall  promptly  remove  from  the  work 
and  its  vicinity  all  materials  rejected,  when  so  directed  by  the 
architect,  and  he  shall  remove  promptly  all  rubbish  (including 
ashes  from  heating  apparatus),  when  so  ordered  by  the 
architect.  All  rubbish  to  be  removed  from  the  interior  of  the 
building  every  Saturday  night. 

(^)   The  contractor  shall  allow  free  use  of  his  staging  by 


290  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

other  persons  working  upon  the  building,  and  he  shall  shift 
the  staging,  and  supply  and  set  when  necessary  new  ledgers 
and  planking  requisite  for  the  carrying  out  of  such  work. 

(r)  The  contractor  shall  furnish  and  inaintain  a  proper 
temporary  water-closet  or  privy,  and  allow  the  same  to  be 
used  by  every  person  doing  anything  relating  to  the  erection 
and  completion  of  the  building,  whether  done  under  this 
contract  or  by  other  mechanics,  and  carry  out  all  directions 
relating  to  such  water-closets  or  privies;  and  he  shall  remove 
same  when  directed  by  the  architect. 

(i-)  (The  contractor  shall  supply  fuel  and  attendance  for 
drying  out  and  protecting  the  building  during  construction. 
When  the  heating  apparatus  is  in  readiness,  the  contractor 
may  have  the  use  of  same,  but  it  must  be  left  in  perfect  repair, 
and  must  be  furnished  with  new  grates  at  the  completion  of 
the  work.)  (If  temporary  radiators  are  required,  he  shall  bear 
the  expense  of  installing  the  same)  ;  the  contractor  shall  supply 
stoves,  salamanders,  etc.,  as  directed  by  the  architect. 

(The  owner  will  supply  fuel,  but  the  contractor  shall  furnish 
attendance  and  stoves,  salamanders,  etc.,  as  directed  by  the 
architect.) 

Section  2.  Excavation. —  (See  Sec.  i.)  (a)  Do  all 
excavating  necessary  for  the  work  covered  by  this  contract. 
Such  excavated  material  as  is  suitable  for  refilling  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose;  the  contractor  shall  supply  additional 
material  for  same  which  may  be  required,  and  he  shall  remove 
from  the  site  all  unsuitable  or  unneeded  material  when  directed 
by  the  architect. 

{h)  Refill,  in  all  cases,  with  gravel  or  sand;  puddle  and 
ram  same  thoroughly.  Layers  of  filling  are  not  to  be  more 
than  6  ins.  thick. 

{c)  [Fill  with  2  ft.  of  loam  and  cover  with  sod  the  portions 
of  yard  noted    in   drawings  to  be  finished  in  this  manner.] 

(fl?)    [The  owner  will  do  all  blasting.] 

Section  3.  \^PiJe  Driving.  —  (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  The 
contractor   shall  do   all   necessary  boring  and   sounding;   he 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN   AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  29 1 

shall  keep  a  record  of  the  movement  of  piles  at  each  blow  of 
the  hammer,  for  the  inspection  of  the  architect. 

Furnish  and  drive  the  piles  as  shown  by  plan;  all  to  be 
driven  to  hard  pan,  to  be  of  spruce,  not  less  than  lo-in.  diam- 
eter where  cut  off  for  capping-stone,  or  6  ins.  at  the  bottom. 

If  any  pile  is  split  or  driven  out  of  position,  the  contractor 
is  to  drive  a  new  one  to  take  its  place. 

(<^)  Cut  the  piles  off  at  grade  5  (except  where  otherwise 
shown),  or  as  directed  by  the  City  Inspector. 

(c)  Provide  and  maintain  sheet  piling  wherever  necessary, 
and  pumps  of  sufficient  size  to  keep  trenches  free  from 
water  until  concrete  footings  are  set.] 

Section  4.  Foundations,  (^d)  [Start  the  foundations  on 
proper -(granite)  levelers;  the  whole  foundation  to  be  of  (even- 
split  block  granite  the  full  thickness  of  the  walls,  the  length  of 
the  blocks  to  be  about  one  third  more  than  the  width),  (rubble 
work)  laid  in  pure,  fresh  hydraulic  cement,  having  good  beds, 
builds,  and  faces,  all  thoroughly  bonded,  and  laid  solid,  a  true 
and  even  face  showing  on  the  inside,  and  also  on  the  outside 
where  exposed;  all  thoroughly  pointed.  Plaster  outside  of 
wall  below  grade  of  adjoining  land  with  Portland  cement.] 

{h)  [Fill  the  bottom  of  all  trenches,  for  their  entire  length 
and  one  foot  wider  than  concrete  footings,  with  a  12-in.  bed  of 
broken  stone,  which  is  to  be  thoroughly  rammed.  On  this 
build  concrete  foundations.  All  concrete  to  be  laid  inside  of 
plank,  forming  properly,  and  firmly  secured  in  position,  and  in 
layers  not  more  than  8  ins.  thick,  each  layer  to  be  thoroughly 
tamped,  and  the  top  surface  cleaned  off  and  wet,  if  necessary, 
before  the  succeeding  layer  is  started.  Should  voids  be  dis- 
covered after  the  forms  are  taken  down,  the  defective  work  is 
to  be  removed  and  the  space  refilled  with  suitable  material. 

Concrete  for  the  foundations  shall  be  composed  of 
American  Portland  cement  (Lehigh),  (Alpha),  (Saylor),  or 
(Atlas),  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  clean,  broken  stone,  mixed  in 
the  proportions  of  one  part  of  cement  to  three  parts  of  sand 
and  (four)  (five)  parts  of  broken  stone.     In  preparing  mortar 


292  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

and  concrete,  the  cement,  sand,  and  stone  shall  be  mixed  in 
the  proportions  by  volume  hereinafter  specified.  The  cement 
shall  be  measured  when  compacted  so  that  380  lbs.  of  dry 
Portland  cement  have  a  volume  of  3.6  cu.  ft.  The  sand  and 
stone  shall  be  measured  when  not  packed  more  closely  than 
by  throwing  it  in  the  usual  way  into  a  barrel  or  box.  The 
broken  stone  shall  average  not  over  2  ins.  and  shall  not  be 
greater  in  any  measurement  than  2 5^  ins.  After  the  materials 
are  wet,  the  work  must  proceed  rapidly  until  the  concrete  is 
in  place  and  is  so  rammed  that  water  flushes  to  its  surface  and 
all  the  interstices  between  the  stone  are  filled  with  mortar.] 

(c)  Leave  holes  in  walls  for  drain,  gas,  and  water  pipes, 
and  for  ducts. 

(^(f)  Finish  level  and  true  on  top,  ready  to  receive  the 
superstructure. 

Section  5.  Provide  Akron  pipe  and  lay  drains  outside  of 
building  where  shown  on  drawings,  to  be  evenly  pitched  and 
the  joints  filled  solidly  with  neat  Portland  cement;  smoothly 
wipe  off  the  inside  of  pipe. 

Section  6.  Cement,  {a)  Portland  cement  shall  be  used 
for  concrete  foundations,  for  pointing  joints  and  plastering  of 
face  masonry,  for  jointing  of  drain  pipe,  for  setting  terra-cotta 
lumber,  for  granolithic  work,  and  for  all  brickwork  of  base- 
ment. In  other  parts  of  the  work,  unless  otherwise  specified, 
where  cement  is  required,  American  natural  hydraulic  cement 
shall  be  used,  except  that  in  freezing  weather  Portland  cement 
shall  be  used  for  all  masonry  and  brickwork.  The  American 
cement  shall  be  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  Rosendale  cement, 
and  the  Portland  cement  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  imported 
Portland  cement;  both  kinds  shall  be  made  by  manufacturers 
of  established  reputation,  and  shall  be  fresh  and  very  fine 
ground,  and  put  up  in  well-made  casks,  unless  the  architect 
permits  in  writing  the  delivery  of  same  in  bags. 

(3)  All  the  cement  will  be  subject  to  inspection  and 
rigorous  test,  and  if  found  of  improper  qualit}^  will  be  branded, 
and  must  be  immediately  removed  from  the  works. 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN   AMERICAN    SCHOOL^  293 

(c)  The  contractor  shall  at  all  times  keep  in  store,  at  the 
site  of  the  work,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  cements  to  allow 
ample  time  for  the  tests  to  be  made  without  delay  to  the  work 
of  construction.  The  architect  shall  be  notified  at  once  of 
each  delivery  of  cement.  All  cement  shall  be  stored  in  a 
tight  building,  and  each  cask  must  be  raised  above  the  ground 
by  blocking  or  otherwise. 

Section  7.  JLi'me.  All  lime  to  be  No.  i  Rockland  lime, 
or  its  equivailent. 

Section  8.  Sand.  The  sand  used  to  make  mortar  shall 
be  clean  and  sharp,  sufficiently  coarse,  free  from  loam  and 
pebbles. 

Section  9.  Moriar.  (a)  Cement  mortar  for  laying  brick 
and  stone  masonry  shall  be  prepared  from  sand  and  cement  of 
the  qualities  before  specified.  The  ingredients  are  to  be  evenly 
spread  and  thoroughly  mixed  dry,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part,  by  measure,  of  cement  to  two  parts  of  sand,  and  a 
moderate  quantity  of  water  is  to  be  afterwards  added  to 
produce  a  paste  of  the  proper  consistency;  the  whole  to  be 
quickly  and  thoroughly  worked.  (See  Sec.  4  (<^)  concerning 
proportions  to  be  used  in  mixing  mortar.) 

(3)  Mortar  shall  be  mixed  in  such  quantities  as  will  allow 
it  to  be  used  very  soon  after  being  mixed,  and  any  mortar  not 
used  within  three-quarters  of  an  hour  after  being  first  wet 
shall  be  rejected. 

(c)  Exterior  brickwork  is  to  be  laid  (in  lime  mortar) 
(colored  with  Venetian  Red)  (with  yellow  ochre)  (in  mortar, 
c.omposed  of  one  barrel  of  Lafarge  cement  to  two  of  lime). 

{d)  [One  course  of  brick  backing  for  limestone  to  be  laid 
in  lime  mortar.] 

Section  10.  Brickwork.  —  (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  No  mason 
work  is  to  be  laid  in  freezing  weather,  except  by  written  per- 
mission of  the  architect,  and  then  only  in  accordance  with 
such  precautions  as  he  may  require.      (See  Sec.  6,  a.^ 

{h)  Construct  all  the  brickwork  indicated  by  the  drawings, 
to  be,  except  where  otherwise  specified,  of  hard-burned  bricks. 


294  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

unifoi^m  in  shape  and  size,  and  well  wet,  except  in  freezing 
weather,  before  laying. 

(c)  The  exterior  brickwork  is  to  be  of  selected  (Eastern 
water-struck  brick)  (brick  like  sample  in  office)  laid  (full) 
"Flemish"  bond  (with  full  headers  every  five  courses)  or  as 
shown  on  contract  drawings.  The  yard  wall,  the  vent  stack 
and  chimneys,  where  exposed,  are  to  be  constructed  as  above 
specified. 

(ci)  Line  the  walls  in  basement  with  selected  Eastern 
face  brick,  joints  ruled  for  painting. 

(^)  Line  the  exterior  walls,  which  are  to  be  plastered  on 
inside,  with- hard-burned,  hollow  clay  brick  4  ins.  thick,  but  all 
bonding  brick  and  brick  about  door  and  window  openings  are 
to  be  solid  hard-burned  bricks. 

(y)  Bed  each  and  ever}^  brick  in  mortar  under  its  bottom, 
sides,  and  ends,  and  bond  the  walls,  unless  otherwise  specified, 
with  course  of  full  headers  every  seventh  course,  and  lay  in 
mortar,  as  specified  in  Sec.  9. 

(^)  Lay  the  whole  with  perfectly  level,  plumb,  and  true 
bond;  rule  neatly  the  joints  of  all  exposed  work. 

(^)  No  putlog  holes  will  be  permitted  in  exposed  brick- 
work except  b}'  written  permission  of  the  architect. 

(/)  [Furnish  and  set  molded  brick  where  shown,  to  be  in 
accordance  with  detail  drawings.]  Lay  all  door  and  window 
heads,  jambs,  arches,  and  stools  in  basement  with  round- 
cornered  brick. 

(y)  Build  trenches  and  conduitsof8-in.  brick  walls  for  waste 
pipes  from  the  basement  plumbing  fixtures  shown  on  draw- 
ings; the  outside  of  walls  of  these  trenches  to  be  plastered  with 
Portland  cement.  Line  with  hard  paving  brick  the  sides  and 
bottoms  of  trenches  and  conduits  for  pipes. 

(>^)  Clean  down  and  point  the  entire  work  at  completion, 
inside  and  out,  where  brickwork  is  exposed,  using  no  acid 
stronger  than  vinegar.  If  efflorescence  appears  on  brick  after 
the  first  cleaning,  the  whole  must  be  cleaned  again  immediately 
before  completion  of  all  other  work  covered  by  the  contract. 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  295 

(Atter  the  bricks  have  thoroughly  dried  from  final  cleaning 
down,  oil  all  exterior  brickwork  with  one  coat  of  linseed  oil.) 

(/)  Provide  and  set  lintels  for  all  flat  window  and  door 
openings,  and  for  vent  and  heat  openings,  braces,  rods,  railroad 
irons,  etc.,  not  especially  noted  on  drawings  or  in  specifications, 
but  which  are  required  for  the  stability  and  proper  finish  of 
the  structure  as  contemplated  by  the  contract  drawings,  and 
the  specifications. 

(//?)  Set  all  iron  work  required  for  the  construction  of  the 
building.  Firmly  bed  and  fill  in  around  all  plates,  beams, 
girders,  etc. 

(n)  Point  around  all  window  and  door  frames  with  cotton 
and  elastic  cement;  staff  beads  to  be  removed  to  do  this  work. 

{o)  Lay  course  of  brick  in  lime  mortar  at  back  of  all  lime- 
stone. 

(p)  All  gas  and  electric  pipes  on  plastered  walls  must  be 
cut  in  to  be  flush. 

Section  ii.  Concreting,  (a)  Provide  filling  of  cinders 
for  granolithic  work  and  clean  gravel  for  other  portions  of 
building,  12  ins.  thick;  fill  in  and  level  off;  settle  and  ram 
same  solidly  to  the  required  grade. 

(d)  Granolithic  bed  to  be  composed  of  clean  crushed  stone 
not  larger  than  one  inch,  three  to  one  of  Portland  cement,  the 
same  to  be  5  ins.  thick.  Skim  on  this  bed  one  inch  thick 
to  be  powdered  granite  free  from  dust,  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  Portland  cement,  laid  in  alternate  blocks  in  best  manner. 

(c)  Concrete  for  floors  elsewhere  (except  that  provided  for 
filling  to  top  of  grounds  in  fire-proof  floors  in  Sect.  19  (a), 
which  is  to  be  a  concrete  composed  of  Rosendale  cement  and 
clean  washed  cinders  mixed  in  proportions  approved  by  the  ar- 
chitects), to  be  composed  of  three  parts  clean  coarse  gravel  and 
one  part  of  Rosendale  cement,  and  where  top  of  concrete  is 
below  Grade  12  the  cement  to  be  Portland  concrete  4  ins.  thick. 

(</)   Concrete  under  all  trenches  and  ducts. 

(^)  All  steel  and  iron  below  grade  and  in  masonry  to  be 
completely  enclosed  in  concrete. 


296  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

(y)      For  concrete  in  foundations  see  Sect.  4  (^). 

Section  12.  Sidewalks  and  Yard  Paving. —  (See  Sec. 
I.)  Lay  sidewalks  of  (hard-burned  paving  brick)  (laid 
herring-bone)  (of  granolithic). 

Pave  yard  with  (hard-burned  paving  brick)  (tar  concrete) 
(granolithic  as  above  specified). 

Section  13.  Cut  Granite. — (See  Sec.  i.)  The  cut 
granite  is  to  be  (Blank)  granite,  six-cut  work.  Sidewalk  curb 
to  be  (as  above)  (pene-hammered). 

Section  14.  Other  Exterior  Stoneivork.  —  (See  Sec.  i.) 
(a)  Provide  and  set  exterior  trimmings  as  shown  on  draw- 
ings; all  to  be  of  (Blank  sandstone)  (Grey  Bedford  lime- 
stone) (Blue  Bedford  limestone)  (Blank  marble). 

(3)  All  moldings  must  be  cut  sharp  and  true,  exposed  sur- 
faces to  be  (hand  tooled)  (machine  tooled  where  the  forms 
will  permit).  All  jointings  shown  on  drawings  must  be 
accurately  followed. 

(c)  [Coat  the  back  of  all  limestone  with  waterproof  coat- 
ing, to  be  approved  by  the  architect.] 

Section  15.  North  River  Stone. — (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  Fur- 
nish and  set  4-in.  North  River  bluestone  slabs,  top-planed  for 
pipe  trenches  and  conduits. 

(J?)  Furnish  and  set  outside  steps  of  North  River  blue- 
stone,  fine  axed. 

(c)  Capstones  for  chimneys  and  vent  shafts  to  be  top-planed, 
exposed  faces  fine  axed.  (All  such  stone  12  ft.  or  under  in 
greatest  dimension  to  be  in  one  piece.) 

Section  16.  Stone  Setting. —  (See  Sec.  i.)  Set  all  cut 
stone  in  lime  mortar,  as  above  specified,  and  clamp  stone  to 
stone  and  to  brickwork  with  (galvanized)  iron  clamps.  (Cor- 
nice stones  to  be  securely  tied  back  into  masonry  walls  with 
wrought-iron  ties.) 

Section  17.  Cafving.  Allow  and  pay  the  sum  of 
(Blank)  dollars  ($ )  for  stone  carving. 

Section  18.  Asphalt.  —  (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  Give  one 
thick  coat  of  hot  asphalt  to  rough  brickwork  of  exterior  door 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN   AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  297 

and  window  jambs  and  outside  of  foundation  walls  and  brick- 
work below  top  of  ground. 

(3)  [Waterproof  bottom  and  sides  of  trenches  and  conduits 
with  two  moppings  of  hot  asphalt  on  two  thicknesses  of  heavy 
tarred  paper.] 

(c)  Cover  with  (Blank)  or  (Blank)  asphalt  the  floors  of 
rooms  so  noted  on  plans. 

(d)  [Lay  coat  of  (hot  asphalt)  (tar  concrete)  on  top  of 
cement  before  screeds  for  basement  floors  are  laid.] 

(e)  [Cover  with  tar  concrete  the  yard,  where  indicated  on 
drawings.] 

Section  19,  Sfee/  and  Iron  Work  atid  Fireproof  Con- 
struction.—  (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  [Provide  all  materials  for 
and  construct  all  floors  and  roof  of  wholly  incombustible 
materials.     This  construction  may  be  either:  — 

(i)  Steel  girders  and  beams,  with  flat  terra-cotta  arch  con- 
struction, with  beams  protected  by  end  construction  soffit 
tile;  all  thoroughly  filled  about  steel  work  with  cement  mortar, 
and  filled  to  top  of  grounds  with  concrete. 

(2)  The  concrete  and  steel  construction  of  the  (Blank) 
Company  for  floors. 

(3)  The  fireproof  and  steel  construction  of  the  (Blank) 
Company. 

Whichever  construction  is  used,  it  will  be  required  to  safely 
sustain  a  live  load  of  (150  lbs.  per  square  foot  for  assembly 
hall,  corridors,  etc.,  and  80  lbs.  per  square  foot  for  other 
floors). 

{h)  Supply  and  set  the  steel  framing  for  walls,  which  shall 
be  of  ample  strength  to  sustain  the  superstructure. 

ic)  Sectional  drawings  of  the  steel  construction  shall  be 
promptly  submitted  to  the  architect  for  his  approval.] 

id)  (Furnish  and  set  window  and  door  grilles.)  (Window 
grilles  to  be  of  wire  mesh  set  in  iron  frame    and    hinged.) 

(Allow  and  pay  the    sum    of   (Blank)    dollars    ($ )    for 

window  and  door  grilles.) 

{e)    [Furnish  and  set  wrought  iron  fence  for  yard.] 


298  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

(y)  Furnish  boiler  flue  of  /^-in  boiler  iron,  thoroughly 
riveted,  and  securely  set  same  with  wrought-iron  supports. 

(^)  Furnish  all  manhole  and  clean-out  covers  and  frames 
as  required,  for  soil  pipe  under  basement  floor,  the  frames  and 
covers  to  have  perfectly  true  bearings. 

(^h)  [Build  fire  escape  where  shown,  constructing  same  in 
accordance  with  requirements  of  public  authorities.] 

(/)  For  Mason's  Iron,  see  Sec.  10,  /.  For  Carpenter's  Iron, 
see  Sec.  24,  b. 

(y)  [The  contractor  shall  take  all  measurements  at  the 
building,  and  erect  the  several  flights  of  stairs.  All.  beams 
and  channels  are  to  have,  at  bearings,  plates  of  requisite 
dimensions,  and  where  members  are  framed  they  are  to  be 
coped  and  put  together  with  angle  plates,  properl}-  bolted,  do 
all  drilling,  boring,  and  jobbing  to  fully  complete  the  work. 
All  the  flights  are  to  have  channel-iron  stringers  (the  outer 
strings  to  have  cast-iron  face  pieces) ;  the  landings  to  be  of 
channel  iron  and  T  and  angle  iron  framing. 

All  girders,  beams,  channels,  angles,  etc.,  are  to  be  smooth, 
straight,  and  true,  and  all  cast  work  is  to  be  from  soft  gray 
iron,  free  from  sand  holes  or  other  blemishes,  to  be  smoothly 
finished  up,  and  all  moldings  are  to  be  clean  and  sharp. 

(Rail  to  be  of  wrought-iron  pipe.)  (For  rail,  see  Sec.  25,  ^.) 

Treads  and  landings  to  be  of  cast  iron,  rebated,  and  to  be 
fitted  with  (Mason  Safety  Treads),  (^-in.  rubber  mat  like 
sample  in  architect's  office)  (4)^ -in  wide)  (completely 
covering  the  tread).] 

(k)  Paint  all  iron  and  steel  work  two  good  coats  of  best 
red  lead  and  oil,  one  coat  to  be  given  at  the  foundr}^  and  one 
when  work  is  set  in  position. 

Section  20.  Interior  Slate  and  Marble  Work.  —  (See 
Sec.  I.)  (a)  Interior  slate  and  marble,  where  in  finished  brick 
walls,  is  to  be  set  when  walls  are  built,  and  when  in  plastered 
walls,  is  to  be  set  before  plastering.  [Interior  marble  to  be 
light  gray  Knoxville,  polished,  except  floors,  which  are  to  be 
honed.]     [Interior  slate  to  be  (Blank).]    In  toilet  rooms  window 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  299 

Stools  and  partitions  to  be  ij/i  ins.  thick;  elsewhere  J^s  ins. 
thick. 

(d)  Provide  all  requisite  hardware,  screens,  angles,  and 
partition  standards  12   ins.  high;  all  to  be  of  bronze  metal. 

(c)   Urinal  work  to  be  supplied  by  owner. 

Section  21.  Roofing  and  Metal  Woi-k. —  (See  Sec.  i.) 
(a)  [All  roofs,  except  those  shown  to  be  of  copper,  to  be 
5-ply  composition  roofing.]  [Cover  roofs,  except  where  shown 
to  be  of  copper,  with  Neponset  paper  and  lay  with  (No.  i 
Penryn  slate)  (No.  i  Monson  slate)  (No.  i  Eureka  slate), 
and  laid  with  4-in.  head  cover,  well  bonded  and  nailed  with 
4d.  tin  nails.  Bed  slates  in  elastic  oil  cement  for  last  two 
courses  at  ridges  and  hips.] 

{h)  All  flashing  of  chimneys,  projecting  stone  courses,  ven- 
tilator curbs,  valleys,  battlements,  walls,  coping,  etc.,  or  other 
rising  parts,  and  covering  of  crickets,  scuttle,  ridges,  and  hips, 
to  be  of  16-OZ.  copper.  Cover  top  of  brick  walls  under 
coping  stone  with  ^-in.  sheet  lead. 

(c)  Skylights  to  be  fitted  with  condensation  gutters  and 
fitted  with  ventilators,  all  of  copper,  and  to  be  glazed  with 
{2>/^-\n.  plate)    (Blank  Wire)  glass. 

{d)  Ventilators  to  be  of  i8-oz.  copper  on  wrought-iron 
frames. 

{e)  [Cowls  for  vent  ducts  to  be  of  i8-oz.  copper  on  wrought- 
iron  frames,  with  movable  louvers  for  all  metal  ducts.] 

(y)  Make  the  whole  roofing  tight  and  keep  it  so  for  one 
year  from  date  of  acceptance  of  the  building  by  the  architect. 

i^g)  [Cornices  to  be  of  galvanized  iron  with  copper  corona. 
Furnish  all  structural  iron  and  steel  framework  for  the  above 
work.] 

{Ji)  Paint  with  red  lead  back  and  face  of  all  galvanized 
iron  work  when  delivered. 

(/)  Provide  (i6-oz.  copper)  (crimped  galvanized  iron)  con- 
ductors where  shown ;  the  connection  of  same  with  sewer  to 
be  provided  by  the  contractor  for  plumbing.  [Conductors  to 
be    of  cast    iron    inside    the  building  and    furnished    by   the 


300  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

owner.]  Provide  sleeves  and  wire  muzzles,  all  of  20-oz. 
copper,  and  connect  with  all  conductors  with  lead  goosenecks. 

Section  22.  Metal  Vents^  Heat  Ducts,  and  Registers. 
—  Metal  vents,  heat  ducts,  and  registers  will  be  provided  and 
set  by  the  owner.      (For  ventilator  on  roof,  see  Sec.  21,  <f.) 

Section  23.  Lathing  and  Plastering. —  (See  Sec.  i.) 
{a)  All  studding,  furring,  etc.,  to  be  made  true  and  plumb 
before  lathing. 

(<^)  The  ceilings  (are  to  be  plastered  directly  on  floor  con- 
struction) (where  furred  down,  or  where  wooden  floor  con- 
struction is  used,  are  to  be  lathed  with  No.  19  stiffened  Clinton 
wire  or  "  B  "  Eastern  Expanded  Metal  lathing,  securely  fastened 
to  metal  furring  strips)  (where  wooden  floor  construction  is 
used,  the  ceilings  to  be  furred  for  wire  lathing  with  beveled 
Georgia  pine  strips.) 

(c)  Wire  lath  across  all  iron  beams,  lintels,  vent  ducts,  or 
other  openings  in  brick  walls  that  are  plastered  directly  on 
the  brick. 

(d)  [All  furring  to  be  of  metal.] 

{e)  [Minor  partitions  are  to  be  constructed  of  terra-cotta 
blocks.] 

(y)  [The  minor  partitions  to  be  of  channel-iron  studs  fast- 
ened at  top  and  bottom  to  cross  pieces  of  channel  iron. 
Channels  at  all  openings  to  run  to  floor. 

Grounds  for  doors  and  windows  are  to  be  set  in  position  by 
a  carpenter  before  iron  studs  are  set.  These  partitions  are  to 
be  rodded  true  and  straight  and  to  be  plastered  with' (Blank) 
cement  or  (Blank)  cement  flush  with  grounds  on  both  sides 
of  partitions,  and  when  finished,  to  be  at  least  2  ins.  thick, 
or  of  greater  thickness  where  required  for  stiffness;  the  iron 
frame  to  be  braced  with  temporary  wood  bracing  from  the 
back  of  the  partition  to  the  floor  until  plaster  has  set  suffi- 
ciently hard  to  set  partition  straight  and  true.] 

(^g)  Plaster  all  walls  throughout  and  ceilings,  including 
basement  ceiling,  with  (lime  and  hair  mortar)  (Blank  cement 
or  Blank  cement)  for  three-coat  work,  lathed  surfaces  through- 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  301 

out,  and  all  brick  walls,  where  not  otherwise  specified  or 
noted  on  plans.  All  to  have  grounds  of  proper  thickness  and 
to  be  brought  to  true  and  even  surface.  Mortar  to  be  well 
keyed  and  hand  floated. 

(-^)  [Angles  and  arrises  to  be  quarter-circle  throughout 
both  walls  and  ceilings.] 

(/)  [Plaster  dadoes  to  be  53^  ft.  high,  of  gauged  mortar, 
composed  as  follows:  — 

Scratch  coat,  i  cask  of  lime  to  2^/^  bushels  of  hair  and  9  cubic 
feet  of  sand.  Brown  coat,  i  cask  of  lime  to  i  bushel  of  hair 
and  12  cubic  feet  of  sand.  Each  coat  gauged  with  300  lbs.  of 
Plaster  of  Paris.] 

(y)  [Run  beads  of  English  Keene's  cement  on  Portland 
cement  backing  for  all  doors  and  window  trims  and  jambs  in 
plastered  rooms.] 

(i-)    [Run  plaster  cornices  where  indicated  on  drawings.] 

(/)  [Provide  and  set  fire-stops  for  all  stud  partitions  and 
for  wooden  staircases.] 

(m)  [Protect  all  weight-bearing  metal,  where  not  protected 
by  masonry,  with  plaster  and  wire-lathing.] 

i^n)  [Mortar  deafen  all  floors,  bringing  the  mortar  level  with 
screeds.     Glue  building  paper  over  all  deafening  when  dry.] 

(o)   Allow  and  pay  the  sum  of  (Blank)  dollars  ($ )  for 

blackboard  surface;  this  price  includes  the  setting  of  same, 
but  does  not  include  the  requisite  carpentry  work,  which  is  to 
be  done  by  the  contractor. 

{p)  Do  all  patching  at  completion  of  the  building  required 
to  leave  the  entire  plastering  work  whole. 

Section  24.  Carpentry. — (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  The  con- 
tractor shall  do  all  cutting,  jobbing,  furring,  grounding,  angle 
and  corner  beading,  blocking,  finishing,  setting  of  approved 
strips,  etc.,  and  provide  all  forms,  centers,  and  lintels  required 
by  the  construction  of  the  building. 

{h)  [Furnish  all  timbers,  bolts,  rods,  hangers,  joint  bolts, 
anchor  iron,  dogs,  etc.,  for  floors  and  roofs  required  for  the 
construction  of  the  building.     Frame,  mortise,  pin,  raise,  and 


302  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

fix  in  position  the  several  floors  and  roofs.  Floor  timbers  to 
be  anchored  to  walls  and  dogged  together  so  as  to  form  a 
continuous  tie  across  the  building  everywhere. 

(c)  Crown  all  floor  timbers,  ceiling  joists,  etc.,  ^  in.  where 
span  exceeds  15  ft.  and  gauge  to  an  even  width. 

(d)  All  the  floor,  ceiling,  and  roof  timbers,  girders,  etc., 
are  to  be  of  straight-grained,  seasoned  (Georgia  pine)  (spruce) 
of  full  and  square  dimensions  and  free  from  large  or  loose 
knots,  shakes,  wains,  or  sap. 

(e)  The  wall  plates  to  be  secured  to  brickwork  by  iron 
bolts  every  6  ft. 

(y)   Cross-bridging  where  shown  to  be   2  by  3-in.  stock.] 

(^)   Partitions,   where   not  shown  as   brick,  are  to   be    of 

(terra-cotta  lumber)     (see   Sec.   23,   e),   (steel   channels  and 

metal  lathing)    (see  Sec.  23,  y )  (spruce  studding  2  b}'  4  ins., 

set  16  ins.  o.  c.)  (double)  (4  by  4  ins.)  at  openings. 

(^)  [Furnish  and  set  3  by  4-in.  pine  studding  around  all 
door  or  sash  openings  in   channel  iron  partitions.      (See  Sec. 

23,/)] 

(?)  [Furnish  beveled  floor  screeds  of  (chestnut)  (spruce).] 
(y)  [Angle  and  corner  beads  to  be  of  metal.] 
(k)  [Cover  the  roofs  with  planed  and  matched,  thoroughly 
seasoned  (ij^-in.  Georgia  pine  plank)  (J^-in.  square-edged 
spruce  boarding)  (%-in.  square  edged  North  Carolina  pine 
boarding)  free  from  loose  knots  or  shakes,  well  set  up  and 
strongly  spiked  to  rafters  (and  dogged  with  wrought-iron  dogs 
on  to  steel  construction).] 

(/)  [Roofing  is  to  be  set  directly  on  fireproof  construc- 
tion.] 

(w)    Prepare  the  roof  for  roofing. 

(«)  Make  frames  for  windows  of  white  pine,  except  where 
otherwise  specified;  inside  to  be  veneered  to  correspond  with 
the  finish  of  the  several  rooms;  those  for  single  sash  windows 
to  be  2^^  ins.  thick,  rebated;  those  for  interior  and  transoms 
to  be  of  2-in.  stock,  rebated,  and  are  to  conform  with  finish 
of  the  several  rooms.     Pulley  stiles,  parting  and  stop  beads  of 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  303 

Georgia  pine.  Stiles  are  to  be  fitted  with  (bronze  face) 
(bronzed  iron)  2-in.  steel  axle  pulleys.  Sills  for  exterior  win- 
dows of  2i^-in.  white  pine  plank  thoroughl}^  seasoned  and  free 
from  knots,  sap,  or  shakes. 

Window  frames  and  sills  are  to  be  painted  one  coat  all  over, 
except  hard  pine,  before  delivery  at  building,  and  are  not  to 
be  set  until  just  before  plastering  is  begun. 

(o)  Construct  sash  i^  ins.  thick,  with  muntins  i^  ins.  wide, 
of  kiln-dried  pine,  hung  with  linen  sash  cord  and  round  cast- 
iron  weights  to  accurately  balance  sash  when  glazed;  sash  to 
be  stained  one  coat  before  delivery  at  building.  Exterior 
single  sash  and  transoms  to  be  the  same  as  above.  Interior 
transom  and  other  sash  to  be  of  wood  to  conform  with  the 
finish  of  the  several  rooms.  (All  sash  in  class  and  recitation 
rooms)   (all  sash  in  north  side  of  building)  to  be  double. 

(p)  Lay  for  under  floors  (spruce  boards  J^  in.  thick) 
(North  Carolina  pine  boards  ^  in.  thick)  (Georgia  pine  plank 
2  ins.  thick)  (dogged  on  to  steel  construction  with  wrought- 
iron  dogs),  thoroughly  seasoned,  mill-planed,  well  strained, 
headings  run  by,  double  spiked  on  every  bearing;  free  from 
large  or  loose  knots,  shakes,  or  sap,  left  perfect  in  every  par- 
ticular, and  ready  to  receive  upper  floor.  (Lay  between  upper 
and  under  floors  building  paper,  breaking  joint.)  (Lay  be- 
tween upper  and  under  floor  (Blank)  flre-proofing.) 

(^)  The  inside  finish,  except  as  otherwise  specified,  is  to  be 
of  kiln-dried  (brown  ash)  (oak)  of  even  color,  all  sand-papered 
with  the  grain. 

(r)  All  door  frames  to  be  of  well-seasoned  white  pine 
plank.  Entrance  door  frames  to  be  fastened  to  masonry  with 
iron  dogs.  All  doors  to  be  custom  made,  of  thoroughly  kiln- 
dried  white  pine  stock,  veneered  to  correspond  with  the  finish 
of  the  several  rooms,  flush-molded,  mortised,  tenoned,  wedged, 
and  glued,  and  all,  except  closet  and  water-closet  doors,  to  have 
transom  sash.  Outside  doors  2}4  ins.  thick;  interior  doors  i^ 
ins.  thick,  except  those  for  water-closets,  which  will  be  i  ^ 
ins.  thick.     Doors,  when  not  otherwise  provided,  are  to  have 


304  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

%-in.  rift  Pensacola  hard  pine  thresholds,  beveled  on  both 
edges. 

Exterior  doors  to  be  glazed.*  (See  Sec.  29,  r.)  All  other 
doors,  except  for  toilet  rooms  and  closets,  to  have  one  glazed 
panel.  (See  Sec.  29,  q.)  [Where  noted  on  plans  supply  and 
set  doors  and  frames  covered  with  tin;  doors  to  be  paneled 
and  to  have  wood  moldings.] 

{s)  Base  around  all  rooms,  corridors,  closets,  etc.,  to  be 
molded  (with  dust  corners).  All  doors  to  have  plinth  blocks 
(using  turned  corners  at  all  angles  and  jambs). 

{f)  All  wall  registers  to  have  molded  trims.  All  rooms 
to  have  molded  chair  rail.  All  class  and  recitation  rooms  and 
the  assembly  hall  to  have  i^-in.  picture  molding. 

(u)  All  blackboards  to  have  frames  and  2^-in.  chalk  re- 
ceivers. 

{y)  All  closets  to  have  over  hooks  two  shelves  of  seasoned 
(white  pine)  (whitewood).  [In  chemical  storage  room,  dark 
room,  apparatus  room,  and  physical  and  chemical  laboratories, 
the  shelving,  drawers,  etc.,  to  be  of  (pine)  (whitewood)  and 
these  fittings  to  run  to  ceiling.  The  glazed  partition  to  run  to 
ceiling  and  to  have  simple  cornice.  (For  glazing,  see  Sec. 
29,  r). 

(w)  (Supply  number)  window  poles  of  (ash)  (oak).  (See 
Sec.  27,  d?) 

Section  25.  Staircase  Work,  {a)  Staircases,  except  on 
landings,  to  have  2^-in.  (ash)  (oak)  wall  rails.  (See  Sec.  27, 
g^      (Iron  staircases  to  have  2j4^-in.  (ash)  (oak)  hand  rails.) 

(3)  [Build  staircases  on  plank  stringers  12  ins.  apart,  with 
platforms  ironed  to  walls.  Staircases  to  be  of  (ash)  (oak) 
treads  1%  ins.,  with  molded  nosings,  risers  J^  in.  Newels, 
rails,  and  balusters  as  shown.  Risers  ploughed  into  treads  and 
treads  into  risers.  Balusters  dovetailed  at  foot  and  tenoned 
into  underside  of  rail.] 

Section  26.  Upper  Floors.  —  (See  Sec.  i.)  {a)  Upper 
floor  boards  throughout,  except  as  otherwise  specified,  to  be 
of  (Maine  maple)  (rift  Georgia  or  Pensacola  pine)  not  over 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  305 

4  ins.  wide,  matched  and  blind-nailed,  planed  to  an  even 
thickness  %  in.  thick;  all  thoroughly  kiln-dried,  well  strained, 
all  heading  joints  run  by  and  cut  plumb  and  square,  and  set 
over  a  bearing  in  every  case. 

(^b)  All  the  upper  floors  are  to  be  (mill-planed)  (planed  and 
traversed  and  scraped  to  a  uniform  surface;  this  work  is  to  be 
done  the  last  thing  after  painter  has  completed  his  work  on 
the  standing  finish.)' 

Section  27.  Hardware. —  (See  Sec.  i.)  («)  All  hard- 
ware trimmings  and  fixtures  for  the  construction  of  the  build- 
ing to  be  of  bronze  metal  unless  otherwise  specified.  All 
requisite  hardware  is  to  be  supplied  by  the  contractor, 
whether  or  not  included  in  the  following  specification. 

(3)  Entrance  and  vestibule  doors  to  have  vestibule  locks. 
These  doors  to  have  suitable  door  checks,  and  these  and  all 
other,  except  'water-closet,  doors  to  have  5^  by  5^  in. 
butts,  solid  knobs,  and  large  escutcheon  plates.  All  doors 
over  3  ft.  in  width  to  have  three  butts.  Fly  doors  to  have 
American  spring  hinges,  two  to  each  door,  and  car-door 
catch.  Where  marked  on  plans,  doors  to  have  bronze  metal 
push  and  kick  plates.  All  doors  to  have  (brass)  rubber-tipped 
door  stops.     Water  closet  doors  to  have  pulls  and  spring  butts. 

{c)  Other  doors  to  have  three  tumbler  (Blank)  or  (Blank) 
locks  (master-keyed). 

(</)    Supply  hooks  for  window  poles. 

(e)  Supply  sash  fasts,  window  lifts,  and  flush  pulls  for  all 
sash. 

(y)  For  standards  for  toilet-room  partitions,  See  Sec. 
20,  b. 

{g)   Suppl}'  brackets  for  supporting  staircase  wall  rails. 

(^)  Transom  sash  to  be  hinged  and  fitted  with  solid  grip 
transom  rods. 

(?)   Two  rows  of  3-in.  hooks  in  all  wardrobes  and  closets. 

(y)    Lockers  to  have  butts  and  (Blank)  combination  locks. 

(k)   Scuttle  fixtures  and  hinges  to  be  of  wrought  iron. 

Section  28.      \^Gas  Piping. —  (See  Sec.  i.)     Pipe  for  gas 


3o6  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

outlets  as  shown  on  plans.  All  to  be  done  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations  of  the  gas  company,  connecting  with 
street  supply,  making  meter  connections,  paying  all  charges, 
testing,  and  making  whole  complete;  all  outlets  to  be 
capped.] 

Section  29.  Painting  and  Glazing. —  (See  Sec.  i.) 
{a)   Thoroughly  putty-stop  and  sand-paper  all  wordwork. 

(3)  All  oil  used  to  be  linseed  oil  from  Calcutta  seed;  lead 
to  be  (Blank)  or  (Blank)  Lead  Works  lead.  Samples  of  the 
above  are  to  be  submitted  for  testing,  and  all  paints  are  to  be 
mixed  at  the  building. 

{c)  Paint  all  exterior  woodwork  four  coats  of  lead  and  oil, 
the  window  and  door  frames  and  sash  to  have  priming  coat 
before  delivery  at  building;  the  priming  coat  for  other  por- 
tions of  the  finish  to  be  put  on  immediately  after  the  work  is 
in  place. 

\d^  Paint  with  one  heavy  coat  of  lead  and  oil  heating  and 
vent  flues  opposite  all  register  openings. 

{e)  Paint  exposed  iron  work  and  all  metal  work  three  coats 
in  addition  to  the  paint  previously  specified  for  the  same  under 
Sec.  19,  h. 

(y)  Window  frames  and  sills  are  to  be  painted  all  over, 
except  hard  pine,  before  they  are  delivered  at  the  building. 
(See  Sec.  24,  <?.) 

(^)  Give  parting  and  stop  beads  of  windows  one  coat  of  oil 
and  two  coats  of  hard  oil  finish.  Grease  pulley  stiles  with 
"beefs-cod." 

(Ji)  Stain  inside  of  all  exterior  sash  and  finish  with  one 
coat  of  shellac  and  two  coats  of  hard  oil  finish. 

(/)  (Finish  all  floors  with  two  coats  of  shellac  and  two 
coats  of  Butcher's  Boston  Polish.)  (Floors  are  to  have  two 
coats  of  linseed  oil.) 

(y)  All  other  finish,  except  where  otherwise  specified,  is  to 
be  well  filled  and  is  to  have  (four  coats  of  shellac,  rubbed 
with  pumice  stone  and  oil  to  dead  finish) *one  coat  (of  shellac 
and   two    coats    of  dead    hard    oil    finish.)     All   work  about 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    AN    AMERICAN    SCHOOL.  307 

water-closets  to  have  two  coats  of  hard  oil  finish  with  high 
gloss. 

(^)  [Paint  with  (four  coats  of  lead  and  oil)  (two  coats  of 
(Magnite)  (Indurine))  in  colors  to  be  selected,  all  exposed 
brickwork  of  basement.] 

(/)  Paint  all  plaster  walls  (and  ceilings)  and  all  Keene's 
cement  work  (four  coats  of  lead  and  oil)  (two  coats  (In- 
durine) or  (Magnite).)  (Tint  all  ceilings  above  basement 
with  water  color.) 

{7n)  [Grain  tinned  doors  and  frame  to  correspond  with  the 
wood  finish.] 

(«)    All  colors  to  be  given  by  the  architect. 

(<?)  All  work  provided  under  allowances  to  have  painter's 
work  as  above  specified. 

(p)  Glaze  exterior  sash  with  double-thick  German  or  Berk- 
shire glass,  well  bedded,  tinned,  and  puttied.  The  sashe? 
must  not  be  put  on  before  the  putty  has  hardened  thoroughly. 
The  basement  windows,  ceiling  lights,  toilet-room  doors,  and 
wherever  marked,  are  to  be  glazed  with  ribbed  glass. 

(^)  Glaze  with  double-thick  German  or  Berkshire  glass 
the  interior  doors. 

(r)  Glaze  partitions  of  chemical  and  physical  storage 
rooms,  etc.,  with  ground  glass. 

(5)   Glaze  exterior  doors  with  plate  glass. 

(/)  At  completion,  all  glass  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from 
oil,  putty,  paint,  mortar,  and  plaster,  and  be  left  whole. 


Index. 


Pages. 

Aarau,  treatment  of  school  at         .        .       37-39 

Plan  of  same    ......     38 

Absorbent  surfaces  of   interior  walls   to  be 

avoided  9 

Academies,   establishment    of    privately  en- 
dowed, in  New  England       .        .        .178 
Conducted  on  the  English  system  .         .180 
Reversion  to  type  of         ...         .  209 
Accommodations,     insufficient,     for     school 

children  in  large  .American  cities  .     13 

Agriculture,  principles    of,   taught   in    Scan- 
dinavian school  gardens       ...       2 
Special  schools  for  .         .         .         .         .241 
Air  inlets,  position  and  size  of        .         .         .  270 
Area  of,  in  England  ....  275 

Air  outlets,  position  and  size  of     .        .        .270 
Area  of,  in  Germany  and  in  the  United 

States 275 

Air  supply,  requirements  of  French  Ministry 

of  Public  Instruction  regarding  .  .  40 
Allowance  of,  by  London  School  Board  71 
In  best  German  schools  .  .  .  .127 
Recommended  by  Dr.  Risley  .  .  .130 
More  liberal  provisions  for,  in  the  United 

States  than  elsewhere  .  .  .  .139 
Insufficient  delivery  of,  in  English  High 

and  Latin  School,  Boston  .  .  .187 
Laws  of  Massachusetts  regarding  .  .187 
Accepted    standard     of,    in     American 

schools . 263 

Open  windows  unsatisfactory  method  of 

obtaining 265,  268 

Movement    of,   from   corridor    to    class 
room     .......  271 

Apparatus  for  filtering  and  washing        .  271 

Regulations  of  Education  Department  of 

England  and  Wales  regarding     .         .  275 

.\isles,  in  class  rooms  of  elementary  schools.  132 

In  high  schools         .         .         .         .         .212 

Aix-la-Chapelle,    plan    of    Kaiser    Wilhelm 

Gymnasium  at 148 

Treatment  of  same 149 

Akademische  Gymnasium,  Vienna,  plans  of  181 
Features  of    Boston  English  High   and 
Latin  School  suggested  by  .         .         .182 
-Alarm  thermometers,  modifications  of,  sug- 
gested for  schools  ....  269 
Andover,    Mass.,  establishment   of    Phillips 

Academy  in 178 

Andrews  Primary  School,  Boston,  view  of   .     82 
General  treatment  of        .         .         .       S^t  ^4 
Angles,  concaved,  desirability  of    .         .         -9 
Annen  Realschule,  Dresden,  treatment  of      .158 
Plans  and  view  of    .        .        .        .         .163 
Apprentices,  manual  training  schools  of  Ger- 
many provide  instruction  for        .         .  240 

Arched  windows 7 

Architects  not   to  be  expected  to  be  expert 

heating  and  ventilating  engineers         .  263 
Architectural  beauty  and  cost         .         .         .16 

Area  of  school  sites i 

Asphalt,  for  upper  flooring  of  basements       .      9 


Pages. 
Asphalt,  specifications  for  .  .  .  296,  297 
Aspirating  shaft,  when  used  with  downward 

ventilation 264,  265 

Boiler  or  furnace  chimney  usually  con- 
structed as 276 

Provision    for  air   movement   in,   when 
heating  apparatus  is  not  running  .  276 

Assembly  halls,  seldom  found  in  American 

primary  schools  .  .  .  .  .S3 
Common  in  American  grammar  schools.  88 
Character  of,  in  American  schools  .  .  123 
Seldom  found  in  Scandinavian  schools  .  123 
Character  of,  in  Swiss  schools  .         .  123 

Astronomical    observatory,    of    Springfield 

High  School 202 

Atmospheric  conditions,  effect  of,  upon  action 
of  system  of  indirect  heating  (except 
fan  systems)         .....  267 
Auburndale  School,  Toledo,  Ohio,  treatment 

of 97 

Plan  of 99 

View  of 100 

Aula,  or  examination  halls     .         .         .     20,  123 

Augsburg,  school  at,  block  plan  of  .         .       4 

Austria,  two  classes  of  elementary  schools  in     18 

Separate  graded  class  system  followed  in  123 

Position    of     windows    in     elementary 

schools  of 136 

Secondary  schools  of,  not  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  present  Prussian  system  143 
Automatic  control  of  heating  and  tempered 

air  supply,  advisability  of         .         .         .  269 
Automatic  flushing  attachments,  for  latrines  178 

For  water-closets 279 

Auxerre,  France,  plan  of  Women  Teachers' 

Seminary  at 261 

Treatment  of  same 262 

Bailey,  Mr.,  architect  of  the  London  School 
Board,  views    of,    regarding   light    in 

schoolrooms 70 

Balusters,  form  of  .         .         .         .         .         .5 

Bank  arrangements  of  seats  in  some  English 

infant  schools 68 

Base-boards 304 

Basel,  plan  of  Spalenschule  in         .         .         .24 
View  of  same   ......     26 

Treatment  of  same  .        .        .        .        .28 

View  of  Untere  Realschule  in  .         .     27 

Plan  of  St.  John's  School  in    .         .         .     30 
Treatment  of  same  .         .         .        jij  33 

Treatment  of  Tochterschule  in         .         .157 
View  of  same   .         .         .         .         .         .160 

Plans  of  same  .....    161,  162 

Basement,  arrangement  of       .         .         .         .4 

Requirements  for 8 

Floors  for 9 

Uses  of II,  12 

Danger  of  fire  from  .         .         .        12,  13 

Height  and  lighting  of     .         .         .         .16 

Sentiment   in    New    York   City  against 

playgrounds  in      .         .         .         ^        .110 

Baths,  use  of  basement  for     .        .        T        .     12 


309 


3IO 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 
Baths,    provided    in    Paul    Revere    School, 

Boston 110 

American  elementary  schools  not  so  well 

equipped  with,  as  some  European,    137,  139 
First  established  in  Gottingen          .         .  280 
Plan  of  gymnasium  and  plunge  bath  of 
Birchfield  Road  Board  School,  Liver- 
pool        280 

General     provision     for,    in     European 

schools 280 

Plunge,    introduced    in    some    English 

schools 281 

Plan  of,  in  a  Berlin  elementary  school  .  281 
Introduction  of,  into  American  schools 

281,282,283 

Hygienic  importance  of  .  .  .  .  283 
Beauty  in  school  architecture,  relative  cost  of  16 
Berlin,  Gemeindeschule  No.  204,  view  of,  in  .     19 

Plans  of  same 22,  23 

Gemeindeschule  in  Wilms-Strasse  in      24,  25 

Plan  of  same 25 

Plan  of  a  Gemeindeschule  in  .  .  •  29 
View  of  aula  of  Gemeindeschule  No.  204 

in 125 

Dimensions  of  class  rooms  of  same  .  127 
Area  of  air-outlets  of  same  .  .  .  275 
Plans  of  Women  Teachers'  Seminary  at 

, 259,  260 

Follows  plan  of  Realgymnasium  .  .  262 
Plan  of  bathing  rooms  of  one  elementary 

school  in 281 

Berlin  Conference  of  Education,  one  result  of  143 
Bernburg,  treatment  of  combined  Gymnasium 

and  Realgymnasium  in         .         .159,  160 

Plans  of  same 165 

Berne,  left-hand  lighting  ignored  in  Cantonal 

School  in 143 

Plans  of  Cantonal  School  in  •         ,        .  146 
Treatment  of  same  ....    147,  149 
Bezirksschule,     non-preparatory    elementary 

school 18 

View    of    one,    in    Scharnhorst-Strasse, 

Leipsic 28 

Treatment  of  same 29 

Plan  of  one,  on  the  Gartenfront,  Mayence     34 

Treatment  of  same 35 

Plan  and  lighting  of  one,  on  Pestalozzi- 

Strasse,  Dresden 40 

Bicycles,  provision  for,  in   Brookline   High 

School 194 

Plans   showing   provision   for,  in   other 
schools  .         .173,  191,  197,  200,  203,  223 
Bigelow  School,  Newton,  plan  of   .        .        -93 
Billings,    John    S.,  suggestion  of,  for  alarm 

thermometer  .....  269 

Birchbark,  use  of,  in  walls   of   Finnish   log 

schoolhouses 52 

Birchfield    Road   Board    School,   Liverpool, 

plans  of  ...         .  73,  74,  75 

Description  of  .         .         .         •        74;  75 

Elevation  of 76 

Plan  of  gymnasium  and  plunge  bath  in  280 
Birmingham  Hospital,  vent  outlets  in    .         .  270 
Blackljoards,  arrangement  of .         .         .         .9 
Usually  provided  for  teachers   only,  in 

English  schools 71 

Provision     of,     uncommon     except     in 

American  schools  ....  140 

Specifications  for      ....    301,  304 
Board  of  Agriculture  (England),  educational 
powers    of,    may    be    transferred     to 
Board  of  Education      .         .         .        .169 


"  Board  Schools  " "66 

Scope  of 164 

Higher  grade 170 

Boarding  schools,  many  early  German  second- 
ary schools  were  .....  142 
Comprise  most  French  secondary  schools  160 
Board  of  Education  of  England  and  Wales, 
by  recent  act  of  parliament,  given  con- 
trol of  secondary  education,  and  with 
other  functions    those  of    Education 

Department 164 

See  Great  Britain. 
Boards  of  health      ......       i 

Boilers,  separate  building  for  .         .         .12 

Tables  of  dimensions  of  .         .         .         .  273 

Seven  horse-power  capacity,  required  for 

each  class  room 273 

Bookcases,  teacher's        .         .         .         .        .10 
Boston,  Brighton  High  in,  view  of          .         •     15 
Proportionate  cut  of,  architectural  treat- 
ment       16 

Plans  of 207 

Features  of 210 

Plan  of  Williams  School  in     .        .         .78 

View  of  same 79 

Plan  of  Eustis  Primary  School  in  .         .80 

View  of  same 81 

View  of  Andrews  Primary  School  in  .  82 
General  treatment  of  same  .  .  83, 84 
Treatment  of  Christopher  Gibson  School 

in 103 

Plan  of  same 109 

Treatment     of     Robert     Gould     Shaw 

•    School  in 103,  104 

Plan  of  same 107 

View  of  same   ......  108 

Treatment  of   Gilbert  Stuart  School  in  104 

Plan  of  same 1 1 1 

Treatment  of  Bowdoin  School  in    .    104,  105 

Plan  of  same 112 

View  of  same 113 

Treatment  of  Paul  Revere  School  in  108,  109 

Plan  of  same 115 

View  of  same 116 

May  hew  School  in 108 

Plan  and  view  of  same  .  .  .  .114 
English  High  and  Latin  School  in  .122 

"  Cart-wheel "  plan  tried  in   Longfellow 

School  in 137 

Plans  of  same 138 

View  of  same  ......  139 

Establishment  of  Latin  School  in  .  .178 
Plans  of  English  High  and  Latin  School 

in 179 

View  of  same 180 

Report  of  John  D.  Philbrick  on  treat- 
ment of  same         ....   180-185 
Tendency  shown  by  Mechanic  Arts  High 
Sciiool  in,  to  differentiate  high  from 
grammar  school  type    ....  209 
Plans  of  South  Boston  High  in       .         .  208 

Features  of 210 

Specially   designed   school    for    manual 
training  in    .         .         .         .         .         .  216 

Number  of  pupils  taking  manual  training 

in .  250 

Bathing  facilities  introduced   into  Paul 

Revere  School  in  .         .    281,  282,  283 

Boston   Public   Library,   branch    of,   in 
basement  of  English  High  and  Latin 

School 184 

Bowdoin  School,  Boston,  treatment  of      104,  105 


INDEX. 


311 


Pages. 
Bowdoin  School,  plan  of         .         .         .         .112 

View  of 113 

Bowls,  set,  should  not  be  used  in  schools  .  278 
Brick,  use  of  varying  texture  and  color  in  .  17 
Brick  pavements,  for  boiler  and  coal  rooms  .  9 
Brick  walls,  as  school  yard  enclosures  .  .  3 
Inner  lining  of  interior  .  .  .  .12 
Brickwork,  specifications  for  .         .         .   293-295 

Brighton  High  School 16 

View  of 15 

Plans  of 207 

Lockers  for  outside  clothing  in        .         .  210 
Bromberg,  treatment  of  Gymnasium  in  .    150,  151 
Plan  of  same    .         .        .        .        .         •  '  5 1 
Brookline,    Mass.,  plan   of   Sewall    Primary 

School  in       .         .         .         .         .         -83 

General  treatment  of  same       .        .        -85 

Plan  of  Pierce  School  in  ...     89 

Treatment  of  same  ....       89,  91 

Brookline  High  School  ....    122,  189 

Plans  of 193 

Treatment  of 194 

View  of 195 

Brooks  School,  Medford,  Mass.,  treatment  of     94 

Plan  and  view  of      .         .         .         .         -95 

Buda-Pesth,  plan  of  school  in  ...     35 

Treatment  of  same 36 

Biirgerschule,  generally  mixed         .         .         .18 
Elevation  of  one,  in  Dresden  .         .         -33 
Building  guilds,  regulation  of   special  trade 

schools  by,  in  Germany        .         .         .241 

Building  laws 13 

Effect  of,  upon  school  buildings  of  New 

York  City no 

Building  trades,  taught  in  German  special  indus- 
trial schools 240 

Building  trades  schools  belong  to  class  of  techni- 
cal high  school      .         .         .         .         .241 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  view  of  English  High  School 

in 186 

Effect  of  Boston  English  High  and  Latin 
School  upon  .....  187 

Plans  of  same  .         .         .         .         .         .188 

Illustration    of    principal    entrance    of 
same      .......  189 

Treatment  of  same  ....    189-192 

Latin  School  in 189 

Plans  of  same 191 

View  of  same    .        .        .  .        .192 

Treatment  of  same  ....    192,  193 
Specially   designed    school   for    manual 

training  in 216 

Plans  of  same  .....   219,  220 

View  of  same 221 

Treatment  of  same  .         .         .221,  223,  224 
"  Career,"      for    confinement    of     refractory 

pupils 144,  158 

Carpentry,  provisions  for  teaching,  in  manual 

training  schools    .         .         .         .         .215 

Special  schools  for 241 

Specifications  for      ....    301-304 
"  Cart-wheel  "  plan,  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of 137 

Carving,    tools    for,   supplied   to    pupils    of 
Mechanic  Arts  High    School,  Boston 

228,  230 

Special  schools  for 241 

Specifications  for      .....  296 
Casement  sash,   general   use   of,  in    English 

schools 71 

Cassland  Road  Higher  Grade  School,  London  122 
Elevation  of 170 


Pages. 
Cassland  Road  Higher  Grade  School,  London, 


171 

175 


292 
265 
266 

2H 
212 


plans  of 

Treatment  of 173, 

Ceilings,  coloring    of       .         .         . 

Wire-lathed 

Cement,  specifications  for 
Central  heating,  two  general  systems  of 
Central  heating  coil         ... 
Central  High  School,  Toledo 

Plan  of 

View  of 

Central  School,  Manchester,  England,  plans 

of 167,  168,  169 

Treatment  of 170,  173 

Centrifugal  pump,  circulation  of  water  aided 

by 273 

Cesspools  should  be  seldom  used    .         .         .  280 
Charity     Commissioners     (English),    educa- 
tional powers  of,  may  be  transferred 
to  Board  of  Education  .         .    164,  169 

Charles  XL,  of  Sweden,  forbids  marriage  of 

illiterates 45 

Chelsea,    London,   plan   of    Cobbold   Street 

School  in 75 

Elevation  of 76 

Chemistry,   provision   for   instruction  in,  in 
English     High     and     Latin     School, 
Boston  .         .         .         .         .         .         .185 

Chicago,  George  Dewey  School  in 

Plan  of  same 

Specially   designed    school  for    manual 

training  in 

No  plans  of  same 

Chimneys,  table  of  approximate  capacities  of, 
in  boiler  horse-power     .         .         . 
Boiler  or  furnace  chimneys  usually  con- 
structed as  aspirative  shafts  in  United 

States 

Chippenham,    England,    plan    of     proposed 
technical  and  secondary  school  in 
Perspective  sketch  of  same 
Type    of     smaller     English     secondary 
schools  .         .         .         .         .         .         .175 

Christiania,  treatment  and  plan  of  Vaaleren- 

gens  School  in 58 

Treatment  of  the  Grunerlokken  School 

in 58,  59 

Plan  of  same 59 

Christina,  of  Sweden,  builds  a  school  in  every 

Swedish  town 45 

Christopher   Gibson    School,    Boston,  treat- 
ment of 103 

Plan  of 109 

Circular  staircases  objectionable    ...       6 
City   elementary  schools   divided  into  three 

grades,  in  Scandinavia  .         .       45, 46 

Class  rooms,  in  Teutonic  elementary  schools     20 
In  English  elementary  schools  68,  69,  70 

Usual   length  of,   in  United  States  and 

in  Continental  Europe  .         .         -97 

Requirements  of  Board  of  Education  of 

England  and  Wales  regarding  .  .  124 
Usual  dimensions  of,  in  American  ele- 
mentary schools  .  .  .  124,  126,  130 
In  schools  of  Continental  Europe  .  .126 
Plan  of,for  fifty-six  pupils,  primary  grade  126 
Plan  of,  fifty-six  pupils,  grammar  grade  .  127 
In  schools  of  Germany  ....  127 
Illustration  of  typical  American  .  .128 
Of  typical  German  ...  .  129 
Recommendations  of  Dr.  Risley  con- 
cerning   130 


105 

216 
221 

274 


276 
174 


312 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 
Class  rooms,  plan  of,  for  forty-eight  pupils, 

grammar  grade 131 

Plan  of,  for  forty  pupils,  grammar  grade  132 
Height    of,   in   recent    New   York   City 

schools 133 

Arrangement  of  light  in  corner  .  .  137 
Comparison  of  advantages  of  narrower  .  140 
Plan    of,    for    sixty-three    high    school 

pupils 214 

Continental    method   of   lighting   would 

necessitate  smaller  ....  214 

Should    be    separated    from    shops,    in 

manual  training  schools        .         .         .219 
Arrangement  and  equipment  of,  in  ele- 
mentary industrial  schools  of  Europe  .  242 
See  also  Left-hand  lighting. 
Classes,  advantages  of  smaller        .         .    140,  141 
Clay   modeling,    provisions   for  teaching,  in 

some  manual  training  schools      .         .  215 
Cloakrooms.     See  Coat  rooms. 
Coal,  storage  of,  in  separate  building      .        .     12 
Approximate  consumption  of,  for  each 

class  room 274 

Coat  rooms      20,  36,  68,  69,  94,  124,  194,  205,  255 
Plans  of  schools  with  37,  73,  75,  95,  122,  152, 
167,  168,  171,  173,  174,  191,  200,  217,  256 
Plans  of  schools  without  22-26,28-31,  33-35, 
38-40,  42,  43,  51,  53,  56,  57,  64,  84,  86,  114, 
118,  120,  145-148,  150,  151,  153-157,  159, 
161-163,  165,  179,  181,  219,  220,  259,  260 
Plans    of    schools    with    separate    cor- 
ridor .        .        .54,  60,  83,  87,  89,  90,  193 
\\  here  separate  enclosures  adjoin   each 
class   room,   called    "  wardrobes  "    in 
United  States       .        .        .        .        .10 
References  to,  so  arranged      .         .         -35 
36,   58,     63,    64,    83,    91,    97,     101,    163, 

108,  122,      139,      187,    194,      203,      211 
Plans  of  schools  with,  so  arranged  34,  58,  63, 

78,  80,  90,  96,  97,  99,  loi,  105,  106,  107, 

109,  III,     112,    115,    138,    188,    203,   210 
Plans  of  schools  with  lockers  in       .         .134 

203,      207,      208,      223,     253,     254,     259 
Co-education,    effect    of,    on     planning    of 

schools  ......      6 

Common  in  Swiss  elementary  schools  .  20 
No    provision    for,    in     Germany    and 

Austria 20 

Prevalent  in  rural  districts  of  Scandinavia    46 
Common  in  American  elementary  schools     83 
Cold  air  boxes  of  furnaces,  location  of   .       '.  267 
"  Collective  exercises,"  traces  of,  remaining  in 

American  schools  ....  123 

English  origin  of 123 

Unknown  in  Teutonic  countries      .         .  123 

In  Swiss  schools 123 

Commercial  life,  secondary  schools  designed 
to  fit  boys  for,  discouraged  by  Wilhelm 
von  Humboldt      .....  143 
Compulsory  education.     See  Education,  com- 
pulsory. 
Compulsory  bathing        .         .         .    280,  282,  283 
Concaved  angles,  desirability  of      .        .        -9 
Concrete,  use  of,  in  iloors        .         .         .  9,  12 

Specifications  for,  in  foundations    .         .  291 

Specifications  for 295 

Confirmation,  denied  in  Norway,  to  children 

who  had  not  attended  school  .  .  45 
Contractor,  general  duties  of  .  .  .  286-290 
Cooking,  use  of  basement  for  instruction  in  .  12 
Illustration   of   class   in,  in    Norwegian 

49 


school 


Pages. 
Cooking,  in  Scandinavian  schools        .       47-49 

In  Toledo  school 104 

Plan  of  kitchen  for,  in  the  Mcellergadens 

School,  Christiania       .         .         .       48,  49 
Transference  of  kitchens  for,  from  base- 
ments to  top  stories     .        .        .       48,  49 
Provisions   for,  in   recently   constructed 

American  schools          .         .         .         .86 
Room  for,  in  grammar  schools,  recom- 
mended by  Superintendent  Seaver       .     88 
Provision  for,  in  New  York  City  schools  118 
American  elementary  schools  not  so  well 
equipped  witli  facilities  for,  as  Euro- 
pean       137,  139 

Copenhagen,  well-defined  type  of  elementary 

school  building  developed  in        .         .61 
Plan  of  mixed  school  in  St.  Hansgade    .     61 
Treatment  of  same  .        .        .        .        .62 

Plan,  elevation,  and  treatment  of  girls' 

school  in  Larslejstraede        .        .       62,  63 
Plan  and    treatment   of    school   in  the 
Jagtvejen       ......     63 

Plan   and   treatment   of    school   in   the 
Oehlenschlaegergade     .         .         .       63,  64 
Corridors,  requirements  of      .         .         .         -4 
Coloring  of       ......     10 

Unfitness  of,  as  depository  for  outdoor 

clothing 124 

Cost,    relative,   of    large  and  small  school- 
houses  i3f  14 

Architectural  beauty  and  .         .         .16 

Country  elementary  schools,  two  grades  of,  in 

Scandinavia 46 

Court,  warmed  and  covered,  found  in  French, 

but  not  in  English  schools   .         .         .72 
Courtyard,  view  of,  of  Lyc6e  Molifere     .        .      2 
Typ)e  of  school  building,  lighting  of,  less 

satisfactory  than  of  H  type  .         .    192,  194 

Plans  of  type  31,  33,  39,  59, 156, 163, 165,  179, 

180, 197,  198,  200, 203,  207, 208, 248,  249,  261 

Cowls,  for  vent  shafts,  when  required     .        .271 

Crefeld,    plans   of    Royal    Weaving    School 

in 248,  249 

Cutting  tools,  supplied  to  pupils  of  Mechanic 

Arts  High  School,  Boston   .         .         .  228 
Dadoes,  various  forms  of         ....       9 
Enameled  brick  or  hard  cement  used  for, 
in  the  London  Board  .Schools      .         .     70 
Dampers,  mixing,  designed  for  automatic  or 

hand  control  .....  269 

In  registers 270 

Dampness,   passage   of   air    checked   by,   in 

downward  ventilation  ....  265 
Darmstadt,  plan  of  Madchen-Mittelschule  in     39 
Treatment  of  same  .         .         .         .         .40 
De  Lancey  School,  Philadelphia,  perspective 

of 133 

Plans  of 134, 135 

Roof  playground  of  ....  136 

Denmark,  school  system  of,  almost  identical 

with  that  of  Norway     .         .         .         .46 
See  also  Scandinavia. 
Department  of   Science   and   Art,  England, 

evening  classes  conducted  by        .         .  164 
Desks,   single,    almost    exclusively  used    in 

American  schools.         ....  126 
Used  by  older  pupils  in  Swiss  and  later 

Scandinavian  schools   .         .         .    126,  127 

Double,  use  of,  in  Europe        .        .        .127 

Dimensions  of,  for  elementary  school      .  131 

More  generous  provision  of,  in  American 

schools  than  in  any  other     .         .         .  140 


INDEX. 


3^3 


Pages. 
Desks,  dimensions  of,  for  high  schools  .        .212 
Diffusers,  air  inlets  sometimes  fitted  with      .  270 
Dimensions  of  boilers  and  settings  for  hori- 
zontal return  tubular  boilers         .         .  273 
Dining  rooms.     See  Lunch  rooms. 
Direct  heating,  by  hot  water  or  steam    .         .  265 
Generally  unsuitable  for  schools      .        .  266 
Direct-indirect  system  of  heating   .         .         .  266 
Unsuitable  for  schoolrooms  .         .  266 

Discipline  of  American  school  children.  .  6 
"  Distributed  "  heating,  unsuitable  for  schools  265 
District   schools,   system   of,  established   in 

Massachusetts       .         .         .         •        78,  79 

Abolished 79 

Domestic  training,  Scandinavian  schools  for 

47,48 

Equipment    for,   in    English   secondary 

schools 164 

Doors 8 

Arrangement  of 4 

Double  air  ducts 266 

Double,  glazing  and  double  sash  ...  8 
Downward  ventilation,  especially  adapted  to 

toilet  rooms 265 

Drawing,  application  of,  to  various  arts  and 

crafts 250 

Drawing  rooms,  should  have  northern  light  .  212 
Important   feature   of    manual   training 

schools 215 

Quiet  position  for 218 

Equipment  of,  in  Mechanic  Arts  High 

School,  Boston      .     •    .         .         .   227,  228 
View    of,   in    French   industrial   school  241 
Dresden,  elevation  of  Biirgerschule  in    .         -33 
Plan  and  lighting  of  Pestalozzi-Strasse 

Bezirksschule  in  .        .  .        .    40 

Treatment  of  Annen  Realschule  in  .  158 

Plans  and  view  of  same  ....  163 

Dressmaking,  special  schools  for    .         .         .  241 

Drill  hall,  in  Boston  English  High  and  Latin 

School 182,  183 

Drinking  fountains 278 

Ducts,  best  form  for 267 

Dudley  New   Grammar   School,  perspective 

sketch  and  plan  of         .         .         .         .  1 72 
Typical  example  of   architectural  treat- 
ment  175 

Dummer  Academy,  foundation  of  .         .         .178 
Dust,  precautions  against  lodgment  of  .         -9 
Physical  apparatus  should  be  as  secure 
as  possible  from   .         .         .         .         .212 
Dutch    municipalities,    seventeenth    century 

schools  established  by,  not  free  .  .  1 78 
Dyeing,  special  schools  for  .  .  .  .241 
Dynamos,  in  each  shop  of  manual  training 

schools  .....    219,  221 

E  type  of  school  buildings,  plans  of       .        30,  38, 
146,  155,  161,  162,  173,  193,  204,  205,  257 
Earth-closets,  best  expedient  for  schools  with- 
out sewer  connections  .         .         .         -279 
Preferable  to'  dry-systems  .         .         .279 

Earthenware,  glazed,  most  approved  in  Eng- 
land for  urinals     .....  277 
Economy,   undesirable   forms   of,   in   school 

construction  .....      14,  140 
Of  narrower  class  rooms  .         .    140,  141 

Education,  compulsory,  system  of,  established 

in  various  European  countries     .         .18 

In  Scandinavia 45 

in  elementary  schools   of   England  and 

Wales   . 169 

Beginnings  of,  in  England       .         .         .66 


Pages. 
Education,  popular,  efforts  for  improvement 

of,  in  Sweden  and  Norway  .        .        -45 
Education  Department  of  England  and  Wales 
merged  with  Board  of   Education  by 
recent  act  of  Parliament       .         .         .164 
See  also  Great  Britain. 
Elementary  schools,  two  classes  of,  in  Ger- 
many and  Austria         .         .         .         .18 
Form  two  grades  in  the  United  States   .     81 
Primary  and  grammar  grades  of,  usually 
combined  in  American  schools     .       81,  82 
Elevators,  in  high  schools       .         .         .         -13 
Probable  future   provisions  for,  in   city 

schools 136 

Eliot  School,  St.  I^ouis,  plan  of      .         .         .98 

View  of -99 

Emergency  room,  in  French  Infant  schools    .     43 
In  Cambridge  High  School      .         .         .  190 
In  State  Normal  School  at  New  Haven.  261 
See  plan  of  Pawtucket  High,  Brighton 
High,   South    Boston    High    Schools, 
Boston ;     Girls'    High    School,    New 
York ;      Gemeindeschule     in    Wilms- 
Strasse,    Berlin ;     Women    Teachers' 
Seminary,  Auxerre,  France. 
Enclosure  of  schoolyard 
Engineer,  employment  of,  in  large  schools 
England,  area  of  school  sites  in      . 

Tendency  regarding   placing   of   school 
yards  in         ....         . 

Covered  playgrounds  in  . 
Enclosure  of  schoolyards  in     .         . 
Stone  staircases  in  schoolhouses  of  .       5 

First  move  toward  public  education  in   .     66 
Development  of  elementary  schools  in  66,  67 
Division  of  public  elementary  schools  in     72 
Board  schools   in,  similar  in  scope    to 

American  grammar  schools  .         .         .     81 
Systems  of  ventilation  and  warming  less 
highly    developed     in     some     recent 
schools  in      .....         .  123 

Public    secondary    education    in,    not 
thoroughly  organized   ....  160 

Recommendation  in,  for  three  grades  of    161 
Many  secondary  schools  of,  under  author- 
ity of  Department  of  Science  and  Art    164 
Effect  of  Technical  Instruction  Acts  on 
secondary  schools  of     .         .         .         .  164 

Elementary  education  free  and  compul- 
sory in 169 

Fees  charged  for  secondary  education  in  169 
Secondary  schools  forming  part  of  the 

public  school  system  of         .         .    169,  170 

Tendency  of  manual  training  schools  in  .  216 

Great  advances  in  industrial  education  in  250 

English  High  and  Latin  School,  Boston        .  122 

Plans  of 179 

View  of    .        .        .        .        .        .        .180 

Importance  of,  in  development  of  Amer- 
ican school  architecture         .         .    180-187 
Report  of   John  D.  Philbrick  on  treat- 
ment of 180-185 

English    High    School,    Cambridge,    Mass., 

view  of.         .         .         .         .         .         .  186 

Effect  of  Boston  English  High  and  Latin 
School  upon  .         .         .         .         .187 

Plans  of 188 

Illustration  of  principal  entrance  of        .  189 

Treatment  of 189-192 

Entrances  to  schools        .....       4 
Eugene  Field  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  treat- 
ment of 94 


314 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 

Eugene  Field  School,  St.  Louis,  plan  of        .    96 

Eurof)e,  area  of  school  sites  in  Continental   .       i 

Co-education  in  Continental    ...       6 

Tendency  of  manual  training  schools  in    216 

Great  advances   in  industrial  education 

in 250 

Eustis  Primary  School,  Boston,  plan  of         .     80 

View  of 81 

Evening  classes,  conducted  by  Department  of 

Science  and  Art 164 

In  higher  grade  English  schools      .        .  1 70 

Exhaust  fans 264 

With   direct   heating,  do  not  give  suit- 
able ventilation 200 

Exits  from  schools  .....       4 

Expert  service,  offset  to  first  cost  of       .         .  263 

Employment    of,    for    ventilation    and 

heating 263 

Eyesight,  impaired,  through  defective  light- 
ing         140 

Factories,  plenum  fan  system,  without  direct 

radiation,  suitable  for  ....  268 
Fan  systems  of  heating,  three         .        .        .  266 
Fees,  charged  for  materials  used  in  Scandi- 
navian cooking  schools        .        .        .48 
See  also  Tuition  fees. 
Filtering  of  air  supply,  apparatus  for     .        .271 
Finland,  school  system  of,  like  that  of  Nor- 
way and  Sweden 46 

Log  schoolhouses  of         .        .        .       52)53 
Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers'  Center,  London     .  122 

Plans  of 174,  175 

Elevation  of 176 

Treatment  of 176,  177 

Fire,  protection  against 12 

Danger  from 12,  13 

Fire-drill 13 

Fireplaces,   open,   objections  to   use  of,    in 

large  rooms 265 

Size  of,  when  used  for  ventilating  pur- 
poses      265 

Fire-proof    construction,  desirability   of,  for 

first  floors  of  schools  .  .  .  .12 
Considerations  in  regard  to,  in  schools  .  1 3 
Floors  of,  in  English  schools  .  .  .71 
Floors  of,  in  Andrews  School,  Boston  .  85 
Of  St.  Louis  schools  .  .  .  -95 
Of  New  York  City  schools  .  .  .110 
Of  Paul  Revere  School,  Boston  .  .110 
Of    English    High    and   Latin   School, 

Boston 185 

Specifications  for     ....   297,  298 
Floor  area,  for  each  pupil        .        .        .   127,130 
Greater  in  American  schools  than  in  any 

others 139 

Floors,  care  of         ....        8,  284,  285 

In  basements 9 

Fire  protection  of  first     .        .        .        .12 
Construction  of,  in  Finnish  log  school- 
houses  52,  53 

Built   upon  a  gradent   in   some  recent 

English  class  rooms      .        .        .        .71 

Of  fire-proof  construction         .         .         .71 

Best  form  of  wooden         .         .         .         .71 

Foot-warmers,  desirable  features  in  corridors  270 

Forestry,  special  schools  for   .         .         .         .241 

Forging    shops,    provision    for,    in    manual 

training  schools 215 

Best    position   of,   in    manual    training 

schools 218 

Equipment  of,  at  Mechanic  Arts  High 
School,  Boston     .        .        .    234,  235,  236 


18 


Pages. 

Foundations,  specifications  for       .        .        .  291 
France,  ornamentation  of  school  yard  in        .      2 
Covered  playgrounds  in   .         .         .         .2 
Enclosure  of  school  yards  in    .         .         .3 
Development  of  school  planning  in  •     17 
Requirements  of  Ministry  of  Public  In- 
struction regarding  air  area  and  light- 
ing in 40,  41 

Attention  paid  to  playgrounds  in  ele- 
mentary schools  of  .  .  ,  -41 
General  treatment  of  Salles  d'Asile  in  42-44 
View  of  street  fagade  of  Parisian  School  44 
Height  of  class  rooms  required  in  .  .  130 
Disposition  of   windows   in  elementary 

schools  of 136 

Secondary  schools   of,  mostly  boarding 

schools 160 

Plans  like  those  of  elementary  schools  .  160 
Frankfort,   plan   of   Willemer  and  Franken- 

steiner  school  at 34 

Treatment  of  same t.^, 

Frederick   the  Great  establishes  system  of 

compulsory  education  .... 

Frederiksberg,  Denmark,  plan  and  treatment 

of  school  at 60 

Free    School    in    Roxburie.      See    Roxbury 

Latin  School. 
Fuel,  greater    consumption   of,  by  indirect 

heating 267 

Furnaces,  heating  by,  not  advisable  in  large 

schools 266 

No   less  expensive  than   steam  or  hot 

water  heating        .....  267 
Necessity  of  auxiliary   hot   water   coils 

for 267 

No  furnace  should  heat  more  than  two 

rooms 274 

Used  in  some  recent  European  schools  .  275 
Gas,  leakages  of,  from  hot  air  furnaces  .  .  267 
Gas  engines,  unsatisfactory  for  driving  fans  .  273 

Use  of,  in  England 273 

Gas  piping,  sjDecifications  for  .        .   305,  306 

"  Gauged  mortar "  for  dadoes  ...      9 

Specifications  for 301 

Gearing,    too    noisy    for    manual    training 

schools 218 

Gegenstrom  system 282 

Gemeindeschule,  non-preparatory  elementary 

school 18 

No.  204,  Berlin  ;  block  plan    ...       3 

View  of  same 19 

Plans  of  same 22,  23 

Plans  of  one,  on  Wilms-Strasse,  Berlin  24,  25 
Plan  of  another  in  Berlin  .  .  .29 
Similar  in  scope  to  American  grammar 

schools 81 

George  Dewey  School,  Chicago,  111.       .        .101 

Plan  of 105 

Germany,   regulations  in,   regarding   school 

sites I 

Enclosure  of  school  yards  in  .  .  .3 
Shade  trees  in  school  yards  of  .         .       4 

Width  of  staircases  in  schools  of  .  .6 
Two  classes  of  elementary  schools  in  .18 
Separate  graded  class  system  originated 


System  of,  followed  in  American  ele- 
mentary schools 

Requirements  as  to  shower-baths  in 
many  schools  of    . 

Position  of  windows  in  schools  of   . 

Early  secondary  schools  in      .        .        . 


79 
123 

124 

136 
142 


INDEX 


315 


Pagjes. 
Germany,   secondary  schools   of,  not   classi- 
fied according  to  the  present  Prussian 

system 143 

Instruction  for  apprentices  and  journey- 
men in 240 

Supply   of    industrial    schools   in   some 

parts  of 250 

Gesle,  Sweden,  treatment  of  school  in    .        -55 
Plan  of  same    ......     56 

Gilbert  Stuart  School,  Boston,  treatment  of  104 

Plan  of Ill 

Girls'    High    School,  New  York  City,  plans 

of  .         ......  209,  210 

Perspective  sketch  of        .         .         .         .211 

Girls'  School,  French,  plan  of  ...     42 

Treatment  of 44 

In    Larslejstraede,     Copenhagen,    plan, 

elevation,  and  treatment  of  .         .       62,  63 
See   also    Mridchen-Mi'ttelschule,   Darm- 
stadt ;  Bowdoin  School,  Boston,  Mass. ; 
Tochterschule,  Basel. 
Goteborg,  Sweden,  treatment  of  school  in       .     54 

Plans  of  same 55 

Gottingen,  treatment  of  Gymnasium  in  .    144,  147 

Plans  of 145 

Gothenburg  system  of  Sloyd  training     .         .     50 
Government     grants,     to      Department     of 

Science  and  Art,  England    .         .         .  164 

Graded  class  system,  prevalence  of         .        .18 

Gradual  adoption  of,  in  English  schools     •]^ 

Originated  in  Germany    .         .         .         -79 

Prevalence  of,  in  American  and  Teutonic 

schools 123 

Grammar  grade,  American  schools  of,  similar 
in  scojae  to  English  Board  School  and 
to  German  Gemeindeschule  .  .  .81 
Features  of  schools  of,  not  so  constant 
in  the  United  States  as  in  Teutonic 
countries  .  .  .  .  .  85,  86 
Arrangement    of,   used   in   many  recent 

American  high  schools  .        .         .  187 

Classrooms  for,  in  normal  schools        .  251 
Grammar  school,  ancient,  prototype  of   the 

present  English  Board  School      .         .     66 
Dudley,    New,    perspective    sketch    and 

plan  of 72 

Early  legislation  concerning,  disregarded 
in  Massachusetts  .         .         .         .178 

Early  American,  conducted  on  English 
system  ...  ....  180 

See  also  Groton  School. 
Grammar  school,  in  easterly  part  of  Roxbury. 

See  Roxbury  Latin  School. 
Grand  Duchy  of  Finland.     See  Finland. 
Granite,  cut,  specifications  for         .         .         .  296 
Grants,  established  by  Technical  Instruction 

Acts,  England       .  -        .        .       .  164 

Grates, -furnace,  size  of    .  '        .  .274 

Gravity  system  of  steam  heating    .         .    271,  272 
Gravity  system  of  ventilation  .        .  264 

Indirect  heating  and  .  .   266,  267 

Great  Britain,  Board  of  Education  (formerly 
Education  Department)  of  England 
and  Wales,  area  required  by,  for  school 

premises i 

Requirements  of,  regarding  staircases  .  5 
Rules  of,  regarding  use  of  the  hall,  in 

Board  Schools 67 

Regarding  light  in  schoolrooms  .  .  70 
Advice  of,  regarding  playgrounds  .  .  72 
Code  of  rules  of,  regarding  coat  rooms  .  124 
Rules  of,  regarding  area  of  class  rooms  .  130 


Great    Britain,   regarding  position    of    win- 
dows      136 

Recent  act  of  Parliament  concerning  .  164 
Prospective  functions  of .  .  .  .169 
Regulations  of,  concerning  air  supply  .  275 
Concerning  water-closets  .        .        .275 

Groton  School,  plans  of  .         .         .         .   204,  205 
Perspective  sketch  of        .         ...  206 
Reverts  to  academic  type         .         .         .  209 
Grunerlokken  School,  Christiania,  treatment 

of 58.  59 

Plan  of 59 

Gymnasium  (German),  fully  classical  school, 
with  nine  years'  course,  present  status 

of 142,  143 

Plans  of 145, 

147,    148,    149,    150,    151,    155,    165,    181 
.See  also  Realgymnasium  and  Realschule. 
Gymnasiums,  use  of  basements  for         .        .     12 
Provisions   for,   in   German   elementary 
schools  .......     20 

Not    usually    found    in     Scandinavian 

country  schools 46 

Plan  of   that  of  the  Maria  Kirchspiels 

School,  Stockholm       .        .        .        -47 
Provisions  for,  in  many  New  York  City 

schools. 118 

Utilized   as  assembly  hall  in  Scandina- 
vian schools           .....   123 
American  elementary  schools  not  so  well 
equipf>ed    in    this    respect    as    Euro- 
pean        137,  139 

See  also  Turnhalle. 
Gymnastics,  Swedish  system  of      .        .        -47 

German  system  of 47 

H  type  of  construction     .         .         .         .         .110 

Gives  better  opportunity  for  lighting  192,  194 
Plans  of  .         .         99,  115,  119,  191,  209,  210 
Halifax,  England,  arrangement  for  outdoor 

clothing  in  Higher  Board  School  at     .     69 
Equipment  of   schoolrooms  with  black- 
boards at       .         .         .         .         .         .71 

Apparatus   for   screening   air  supply  in 
Higher  Board  School  at       .        .        .271 
"  Hall,"  in  English  Board  Schools         .        .     67 
In  Infants  schools    .  ....     68 

Hammock  room.     See  Emergency  room. 

Hand  control,  for  mixing  dampers  .         .  269 

Hand-rails,  requirements  for  .         .         .         .  5,  6 

Hanover,  architectural  treatment   of  irregu- 
lar corner  lots  in  .         .         .         .         .  155 

Plan  of  Leibnitz  Realschule  in         .        .  157 
Hardware,  specifications  for   ....  305 

Hartford,  Conn.,  treatment  of   New    Brown 

School  at       .  ....    loi,  103 

Plan  of  same    .  .....  106 

Harvard   College,   "grammar"   schools   pri- 
marily preparatory  for,  in  1647     .        .     78 
Early  preparatory  schools  for  .         .        .  1 78 
Heat,  loss  of,  through  single  glazed  sash        .       8 
Heating,    highly    developed    system    of,    in 

Switzerland  and  America    .         .        .  123 
Indirect   "  natural  "    system  of,  unsatis- 
factorily used  in    English    High   and 
Latin  School,  Boston  .         .         .  187 

In  Swiss  schools  superior  to  that  of  other 
continental  schools        ....  275 

Employment  of  expert  service  in  plans 

for 263 

Two  groups  of  systems  of        .         .         .  265 

Height  of  class  rooms     .....  130 

In  recent  New  York  City  schools    .        .  133 


3i6 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 

Height  of  schools 13 

In  England 73i  75 

High  schools,  establishment  of  the  modern    .  180 
Often  little  more  than  elaborate  develop- 
ment of  graded  grammar  schools  .   187 
Plans   of,  less  affected  by  rigid   system 

than  those  of  elementary  schools  .  214 

Plan  of  class  room  for  .  .  .  .214 
Hildesheim,    treatment    of   Gymnasium     at 

.         .         .         .  154,  155,  157 

Plan  of  same 155 

Hdhere  Biirgerschule,  non-classical  schools, 
with  six  years'  course  (abolished  since 

1891) 142 

Holiday   schools    of    Germany    provide    in- 
struction for  apprentices  and  journey- 
men      .......  240 

Holland,  co-education  in  ....       6 

Hopedale,  Mass.,  plan  of  grammar  school  in      84 
Perspective  sketch  of  same      .        .        •     85 
Treatment  of  same  .         .         .         .         .88 

Horticulture,  principles  of,  taught  in  Scandi- 
navian school  gardens ....       2 

Hot  air  furnaces,  heating  by,  generally  pref- 
erable to  direct  heating         .         .         .  266 

Leakages  from 267 

Recently  used  in  European  schools         .  275 
Hot-water  heating,  likely  to  be  more  used  in 

American  schools  .         .         .         .272 

Combination  of    with   steam  heating  in 

some  recent  New  York  schools    .        .272 
Use  of,  in  English  schools       .        .        .273 
Recently  used  in  European  schools  .  275 

Hospital,  features  of  construction  of,  desir- 
able in  schools      ....  9 

Hospital  room.     See  Emergency  room. 
House   trap,  best   placed  in  brick  manhole, 

outside  building    .....  276 

Humboldt,    Wilhelm     von,     remodeling     of    9 
Prussian  secondary  education  by  .142 

Incombustible  materials,  schoolhouses  of  St. 

Louis  now  built  wholly  of    .         .         -93 
Paul    Revere   School,  Boston,  first   ele- 
mentary school  in  New  England  to  be 
built  of  .         .         .         .         .         .110 

See  also  Fire-proof  construction. 
Indirect   central    heating,    by    hot    air    fur- 
naces      265,  266 

Indirect  heating,  with  gravity  ventilation, 
more  advantageous  than  furnace  heat- 
ing          266 

Increased  cost  of 267 

Except    in    fan    systems,    united    with 
gravity  ventilation        ....  267 

Uncertainties  of 267 

Reasons   for  added   cost  of,  over  direct 

heating 267,  268 

With  gravity  ventilation,  unsuitable  for 
school  of  more  than  ten  rooms     .         .  268 
Industrial  drawing  schools,  in  Germany         .  242 

Free  evening 250 

Industrial  training.     See  Manual  training. 
"Infant  class,"  English,  similar  in  scope  to 
American   primary  grade  and  kinder- 
garten    81 

Infant    schools,    general    treatment    of,    in 

France 42-44 

Plan  of  one  at  Etienne  .  .  .  .42 
Inlets,  air,  positions  and  size  of  .  .  .  270 
Innsbruck,  Austria,  plan  of  industrial  school 

at 243 

Treatment  of  same  .....  245 


/  Pages. 

Instruments,  drawing,  supplied  to  pupils  of 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston   .  227 
Iron  work,  specifications  for  .         .         .   297,  298 
Iron- working,  special  schools  for    .         .         .241 
Irregular  corner  lots,  architectural  treatment 
of.     See  Hanover,  Karlsruhe,  Leipsic- 
Reudnitz. 
Italian  marble,  too  absorbent  to  be  used  in 

connection  with  plumbing  fixtures   277,  278 
Itinerant  schools,  in  Scandinavian  countries  45, 46 
Janitors,  living  apartments  for        .         .         .11 
In  German  elementary  school  buildings  .     20 
In  English  schools   .  .         .       .         -72 

In  German  secondary  schools  .         .  143 

In    English    High    and    Latin   School, 

Boston 184 

Should  be  held  responsible  for  tempera- 
ture        269 

Importance  of  faithful  service  from         .  283 
Recommendation   of   Mr.    Philbrick   re- 
garding janitor  service          .         .         .  283 
Rules  of  School  Board  of  Toledo  regard- 
ing          283,  284,  285 

Rules  in  Saxony  regarding      .        .        .  285 
Johannes  School,  Stockholm,  treatment  and 

plan  of 56 

Elevation  of     .         .        .        .        .        .     57 

Joinery  tools,  supplied  to  pupils  of  Mechanic 

Arts  High  School,  Boston    .        .        .  231 
Joints  of  plumbing  fixtures     ....  276 

Journeymen,  manual  training  schools  of  Ger- 
many provide  instruction  for  .  240 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,  Aix-la-Chapelle, 

plan  of 148 

Treatment  of 149 

Karlsruhe,  left-hand  lighting  ignored  in  Real- 

schule  in 143 

Plans  of  same 148 

Treatment  of  same  .         .         .    149,  150,  151 
Treatment  of  Realgymnasium  in     .         .  155 

Plans  of  same 156 

Keene's  cement,  for  door  and  window  trims  9, 301 
Kindergarten,   special  provision  for,  seldom 
made   in    plans   of    American   school- 
houses  .......     81 

Provision  for,  in  many  New  York  City 

schools 118 

Class  rooms  for,  in  Normal  schools        .  251 
Knoxville  marble  best  for  use  in  connection 

with  plumbing  fixtures  .         .         .  278 

Konig  Wilhelm  Gymnasium,   Stettin,   view 

of 149 

Plans  and  treatment  of    .        .        .        .150 
L  type  of  school  building.     See  Berne,  Brom- 

berg,  Karlsruhe,  Salzwedel. 
Laboratories,   provided   in   some    American 

elementary  schools        .         .         .         .86 
Provision     for,    in    English    secondary 

schools . 164 

In  Cambridge  High  School  .        .  190 

One    wall    with   exjwsure  to    sunlight, 

essential  in  physical     .        .        .        .212 

Quiet  position  for  physical      .         .         .  218 

Lace-making,  special  schools  for     .         .         .  241 

Lagrange  School,  Toledo        .        .        .        .98 

Plan  of loi 

Elevation  of 102 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  efforts  of,  for  public  edu- 
cation     66 

Landings,  staircase 6 

Landscape    gardening,    in    playgrounds    of 

French  elementary  schools  .        .        -41 


INDEX. 


317 


Pages. 
Lathe,   pattern-maker's,  at    Mechanic    Arts 

High  School,  Boston    ....  232 
Lathing  and  plastering,  specifications  for  .     .  300 
Latin  School,  Boston,  first  free  school  sup- 
ported by  public  funds  .         .         .178 
See  also    English   High   and   Latin   School, 
Boston. 
Latin  School,  Cambridge        ....  189 

Plans  of   .  191 

View  of 192 

Treatment  of 192,  193 

Latin   schools,  only  form  of   early   German 

secondary  schools  .         .         .         .142 

Made  highly  classical  by  Wilhelm  von 

Humboldt 142 

Latrines,  brick,  inadvisable,  unless  in  separate 

building         .  ....  278 

Construction  of  ...    278,  279 

Leakages  of   gas  and  smoke,  possibility   of, 

from  hot  air  furnaces    ....  267 
Leibnitz  Realschule,  Hanover        .        .        -155 

Plan  of 157 

Leipsic,  elevation  of  Bezirksschule  on  Scharn- 

horst-Strasse  in     .  .        .         .28 

Treatment  of  same  .  ...     29 

Leipsic- Reudnitz,  Realschule  in     .        .        -155 
Plan  of  same    .         .....  159 

Leitomischl,   left-hand    lighting    ignored    in 

Oberrealschule  in  ....  143 

Treatment  of  the  Oberrealschule  151,  153,  154 
Plans  of  same  .         .         .       .        .        .152 

Length  of  class  rooms,  in  United  States  and 

Continental  Europe      .         .         .         -97 
Library,  provided  in  some  American  elemen- 
tary schools 86 

Provisions    for,    in     New     York     City 

schools . 118 

In    Boston    English    High    and    Latin 

School 183,  184 

In  Cambridge  High  School      .        .        .190 
May  have  northerly  exposure  .        .        .  212 
Light,  northern,  demanded  in  German  class 

rooms    .         .  .  ...     20 

Requirements    of    French    Ministry    of 

Public  Instruction  regarding         .       40,  41 
Usual    arrangement    of,     in     American 

elementary  schools  .        ■      .        .82 

Insufficient,  in  American  class  rooms  of 

certain  dimensions  .        •        .       -131 

In  recent  New  York  City  schools    .        -133 
Amount  and  disposition  of,  defective  in 
most  American  schools  .         .   140,  141 

Lighting,   left-hand   only,  observance  of,  in 

Teutonic  schools  .  ...       20, 35 

Disregarded  in  some  elementary  school 

plans     ...  21,  38,  39 

In  French  schools      .  .        1       .     41 

Exceptional  Scandinavian  plans      .       54,  57 
Generally    required    by    Education    De- 
partment ,of  England  and  Wales .         .     70 
Seldom  found  in   American  schools  .     82 

In  VVaite  School,  Toledo,  Ohio  -  98 

Insufficient  in  rooms  28  ft.  wide       .        -133 
Important    for     pupils    during    writing 
exercises         .         .  .       .  136 

Important  for  teachers'  eyesight        .        .  137 
Lack  of,  principal   defect  of   American 
schools.         ...  ...  140 

Exceptional  Teutonic  secondary  schools 

143.  162 

In  High  school,  Brookline,  Mass.    .    193,  194 
In  High  school,  Newark,  N.  J.         .   200,  202 


Pages. 
Lighting,  hope  for  further  development  of,  in 

high  schools .         .         .         .         .         .214 

Lime,  specifications  for  .....  293 

Lindholmen,  plan  of  two-room  school  at         .     53 
Treatment  of  same  .         .         .         •        53,  54 
Liverpool,  plans  of   Birchfield    Road    Board. 

School  in       ...         .  y^i  74>  75 

Treatment  of  same 74 

Plan  of  gymnasium  and  plunge  bath  of 
Birchfield  Road  School  in    .         .         .  280 
Lockers,  use  of,  in  recent  high  schools    .         .210 

Construction  of 211 

Ventilation  of .212 

Individual         .         .         .         .         .         -253 

Log  schoolhouses  of  Finland  ...       52,  53 
London,  plan  of  Board  School  on  New  North 

Street  in        ......     69 

Elevation    of     Cassland    Road    Higher 
Grade  School  in    .         .         .         .         .170 

Plans  of  same 171 

Treatment  of  same  .        .        .        .173,175 
Plans  of  Finsbury  Pupil-Teachers'  Cen- 
ter, Offord  Road  .         .         .         .174,175 

Elevation  of  same 176 

Treatment  of  same  .         .         .         .176,177 
Longfellow    School,    Boston,    "  cart-wheel " 

plan  tried  in 137 

Plans  of 138 

View  of .139 

Longitudinal  corridor   type  of   school,  with 

rooms  on  one  side  .         .     22,23,25,34, 

35.42,43,  56,  78,83,  14S,  150,  157,259,260 
With  rooms  on  both  sides       .         .         26,  28 
29,  30,  31,  36,  37,  38,  39,  40,  56,  89,  90,  93, 
95,  97,  98,  105,  106,  109,  III,  112,  114,  118, 
134,  135,  145,  148,  171,  188,  212,254,256 
Louvers  ........   271 

Lowell,   Mass.,  elevation   and  treatment   of 

State  Normal  School  in        .        .        .  255 
Plans  of  same  ......  256 

Lunch  rooms  ......     48 

170,    184,    190,    194,    199,   218,   224,   258 
Plans   showing   .         .         169,  173,  191,  193 
196,  197,  200,  203,  208,  244,  252,  257,  261 
Lunches,     possibility    of      improvement     in 

character  of 11 

Served  to  elementary  school  children  in 
Stockholm  ......     48 

Lycee  Victor  Hugo,  Paris,  facade  of       .        .  166 
Lycee  Racine,  view  of  staircase  in  .        .       5 

Machine-shop,  provision  in  manual  training 

schools,  for  practise  in  .         .         .215 

Equipment  of,  at  Mechanic  Arts  High 
School,  Boston      .  .        .   236-240 

Madchen-Mittelschule 20 

Plan  of  one  in  Darmstadt         .        .         -39 
Treatment  of  same  .  ....     40 

Magdeburg,  plan  of  Realschule  in  .    153,  154 

Treatment  of  same  .  •       .         .    154,  157 

Managers,   graduated  from    building  trades 

schools  .  ....  241 

Manchester,  England,  plans  of  Central  School 

in  .         .         .         .         .        .   167,  168,  169 

Treatment  of  same  .         .         .    170,  173 

Mann,  Horace,  extension  and  improvement  of 

secondary  education  largely  due  to       .  180 
Mannheim,  plan  of  mixed  school  in       .        .31 
Treatment  of  same  .         .        .        •       33, 35 
Manual  training    schools,  use  of  basements 

for 12 

Introduced  into  many  American  schools 
of  recent  construction  .         .        .     •    .     86 


3i8 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 
Manual    craining  schools,  provision  for,  in 

many  New  York  City  schools     .        .118 
American  elementary  schools  not  so  well 
equipped  with  facilities  for,  as  Euro- 
pean       137,  139 

Equipment    for,  in    English  secondary 

schools 164 

Purpose  of 215 

Fittings  of        .        .        .        .        .        .215 

Provide  instruction  for  apprentices  and 

journeymen,  in  Germany      .        .        .  240 
Many  European,  possess  no  buildings  of 

their  own 242 

Varied  organization   of    elementary,  in 

Europe 242 

Great  advances  in,  in  Europe  .  .  .  250 
Imperfect  provision  for,  in  the   United 

States 250 

Maple,  for  upper  flooring        ....      8 
Marble,  Italian,  too  absorbent  to  be  used  in 

connection  with  plumbing  fixtures  277,  278 
Knoxville  slate  better  for  this  purpose    .  278 
Marble  work,  interior,  specifications  for    298,  299 
Maria  Kirchspiels  School,  Stockholm,  plan  of 

gymnasium  of 47 

Marquetry,  wooden,  undesirable  for  flooring  .     71 
Marriage  of  illiterates  forbidden  by  Charles 

XI.,  of  Sweden 45 

Masonry  construction,  less  desirable  than 
steel  skeleton  frame  for  four-story  or 

more  schools no 

Masons,  special  schools  for     .        .        .        .241 
Massachusetts,  public  school  system  of  the 

United  States  originated  in  .        .     78 

District  school  system  established  in    78,  79 

Abolished 79 

Separate  schools  often  provided  for  prim- 
ary and  grammar  grades  in  .        .        .81 
Law  passed  by  General  Court  of,  requir- 
ing maintenance  of  grammar  schools  .  1 78 
Creation  of  State  Board  of  Education 

in. 178 

Horace  Mann  first  secretary  of  this  Board  180 
Master  mechanics  employed  as  teachers  in 

Gothenburg  system  of  Sloyd         .         .     50 
Masters,  living  apartments  provided  for,  in 

many  European  schools  .       .11 

Office  for  .        .         .  ..II 

Quarters  for,  in  English  schools  .  .  72 
No  office  for,  in  American  primary  schools  83 
Quarters  usually  provided  for,  in  German 

secondary  schools    .        .        .        .        143 
Quarters  for,  in  Dudley  New  Grammar 

School 172,  175 

Mayence,  plan  of  Bezirksschule  on  the  Gar- 

tenfront  in 34 

Treatment  of  same  .        .        .        .        -35 

May  hew  School,  Boston  .        .        .        .108 

Plan  and  view  of      .         .       .        .        .114 

No  wardrobes  in 108 

Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston,  tendency 
shown  in,  to  differentiate  high  from 
grammar  school  type    .        .        .        .210 

View  of 222 

Plans  of 223,  224 

Treatment  and  equipment  of  .        .    224-240 
Views  of  machine-shop  of        .        .        .  226 
Views  of  wood-working  and  wood-turn- 
ing shop  of    .         .....  229 

View  of  forge-shop  of  .  .  .  233,  237 
Mechanic  Arts  High  Schools,  purpose  of  .215 
Mechanical  ventilation,  two  systems  of  .        .  264 


194 


Medford,  Mass.,  plan  of  Brooks  School  at 

Plan  and  view  of  same 
Metal-work,  special  schools  for 

Spiecifications  for      .... 
Mezzanine  toilet  rooms  121, 122, 175,  i 
Mikkelsen  system    .... 
Military  service,   German,  preparation    for 
given  in  the  Gymnasium   and   Real 

gymnasium 

Mill  construction 

Mining,  special  schools  for 
Mixed  school,  plan  of  single  class  French 
Plan  of  one,  in  Paris 
Treatment  of  same  .... 
Treatment  of  one,  at  Basel 
"  Model    departments,"    of    Normal   school, 

pupils  of        ...        . 
Modeling  rooms,  provisions  for,  in  New  York 

City  schools .... 
Moellergadens   School,  Christiania,  plan    of 

school  kitchen  of  . 
Molding,   provisions  for   teaching,  in   some 

manual  training  schools 
Mortar,  use  of  colored     . 

Specifications  for 
MUlheim,  Germany,  plans  for  Weaving  School 

at 

Treatment  of  same  .        . 
MuUioned  windows,  use  of      .        .        . 
Munich,  plan  of  Mariahilsplatz  school  in 
Treatment  of  same  .         .        .        .       : 

Plan  of  Wittelsbacher-Strasse  School  in 
Plan  and  treatment  of  school  in 
Elevation  of  same    .  ... 

Municipalities,  English,  and  the  Technical 

Instruction  Acts    . 
"  Naasche"  system  of  Sloyd  training 
National  system  of  secondary  education,  plan 

for,  in  England 
Naval  service,  German,  preparation  for,  given 
in    the    Gymnasium    and    Realgym 
nasium ...... 

Navigation,  special  schools  for 

New  Britain,  Conn.,  High  School,  plans  of 

Cloakrooms  and  gymnasium  of 
New  Brown  School,  Hartford,  Conn.,  treat 
ment  of  .... 

Plan  of     .         . 
New    Haven,    Conn.,    treatment    of    State 
Normal  School  in  .        .    255,  258 

Plans  of  same  .... 

Perspective  sketch  of  same 

New  London,  Conn.,  plan  of  Winthrop  Gram 

mar  School  in  •       .       .        . 

View  of  same   .  .       . 

Ingenious  arrangement  of  screens  in 

New  York  City,  movable  partitions  used  in 

some  recent  schoolhouses  in 

Public  School  No.  154  in 

Plan  and  view  of  same 

View  of  playroom  of  same 

Public  School  No.  165  in,  shows  typical 

arrangement 
Perspective  sketch  and  plan  of  same  119, 
View  of  Public  School  No.  167  in 
View  of  Public  School  No.  153  in 
View    of    roof    playground    of    Public 

School  No.  147  in 
Public   School  No.  153  in,  of  fire-proof 

construction 
Height  of  class  rooms  in  recent  schools 
of 


Pages. 
94 

95 
241 
299 
275 

51 


142 
12 

241 
41 

43 
44 

157 

.251 

118 

48 

265 

17 

293 


245 

247 

7 

26 

8,29 

30 

36 

37 

164 

50 

169 


142 
241 

203 
205 

-103 
106 

-2u2 
257 


87 


79 
no 
118 

12!) 

no 
120 
117 
121 

121 


^33 


INDEX. 


319 


Pages. 
New  York  City,  plans  of  Girls'  High  School 

.   209,  210 


211 


272 
200 
201 
202 
90 
91 

,94 
92 

93 
142 


54 

255 
254 
296 
I,  2 
212 
50 
45 


Perspective  sketch  of  same 
Combination  of   steam  and  hot    water 
heating  used  in  some  recent  schools  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  High  School,  plans  of    . 
View  of    .....        . 

Patterned  after  continental  schools 
Newton,  Mass.,  plan  of  Peirce  School  in 
View  of  main  entrance  of  same 
Treatment  of  same  .  ... 

View  of  corridor  of  same 
Plan  of  Bigelow  School  in 
Non-classical  high  school,  agitation  for  estab- 
lishment of,  by  Spillepe 
Normal  schools,  sometimes  under  control  of 
local  school  boards 
Essential  features  of  .        .   251, 

Norrkoeping,  Sweden,  plan  and  elevation  of 

sixteen-room  school  at 
North   Adams,    Mass.,  treatment    of    State 
Normal  School  in  ...   253, 

Plans  of  same  .  ... 

North  River  Stone,  specifications  for 
Northerly  exposure,  for  class  rooms 

For  school  libraries  and  drawing  rooms 
Norway,  only  one  system  of  Sloyd  training  in 
Efforts  to  extend  popular  education  in 
See  also  Scandinavia. 
Nyborg,  Denmark,  plan  of  one-room  school  in 
Treatment  of  same  . 
Elevation  of  same    . 
Oberland,  Switzerland,  architectural  charac- 
teristics of     .         .... 

Oberrealschule,  neither  Latin  nor  Greek  in 
eluded  in  curriculum  of 
Present  status  of       .         ... 

Odense,    Copenhagen,     Denmark,    plan     of 
school  in        .         ... 

Treatment  and  elevation  of  same 
Ohio,    description     of     poorly    constructed 

schoolhouse  in  a  city  of 
Oil  colors,  preferable  for  schoolroom  walls 
One-room  school,  in  Nyborg,  Denmark,  plan 

of 

Treatment  of    .         .        . 
Elevation  of     .         .... 
English  very  tenacious  of         .         . 
Open  fireplaces,  objections  to  use  of,  for  ven 

tilation  in  large  rooms 
Orientation  of  schools    .  ... 

Ornamentation  of  schools        ... 

Of  school  yards  in  France 
Outdoor  clothing,  provisions  for 

In    German    and    Austrian    elementary 

schools 20 

Usual  disposal  of,  in  English  elementary 

schools 68-70 

Provisions  for,  in  American  elementary 

schools 

Separate  enclosures  not  provided  for,  in 

New  York  City  schools 
Provisions  for,  in  recent  Swiss  and  Ameri- 
can schools    .         .         .... 

In  English  schools    .  .... 

In  German  schools  .  .... 

Better  provision  for,  in  American  than 
in  most  other  schools    .... 

Disposal  of,  in  English  High  and  Latin 
School,  Boston      ..... 

This  method  objectionable 
In  Cambridge  Latin  School     . 


142 
143 


14 


68 


265 


82 


124 
124 
124 

140 

183 
187 
194 


Pages. 
Outdoor  clothing,  in  Brookline  High  School  .  194 
In  Springfield  High  School  .  .  .  205 
In  Newark  High  School  ....  205 
In  New  Britain  High  School  .  .  ,  205 
Lockers    for,    in    recent    high    schools 

.    210,  21 1,  212 

Objection  to  hanging  of,  in  corridors      .  271 
See  also  coat  rooms. 
Outlets,  air,  position,  and  size  of    .        .        .  270 
Overheated    rooms,    common    in    American 

schools  .......  264 

Dangers  of,  from  hot  air  furnaces    .         .  267 
Overseers,    graduated    from    building-trades 

schools 241 

Painting,  of  schoolroom  walls  .         .         .10 

Specifications  for      ....   306,  307 

Paisley,     England,     perspective     sketch    of 

school  in        ......     67 

Plan  of  same    ......    69 

Paris,  elevation  of  Watch  and  Clock  Making 

School  in       .....         .  246 

Parliamentary  grants  for  elementary  educa- 
tion, in  England 66 

Parmenter,  C.  VV.,  report  of,  on  Mechanic  Arts 

High  School,  Boston    ....  225 

Partitions 12 

Movable,  used  in  some  English  elemen- 
tary schools 68 

Between  class  rooms,  abandoned  by  Lon- 
don School  Board         .        .        .        .77 
Use  of,  in  American  schools    .        .        -79 

And  assembly  halls 88 

Used  in  many  New  York  City  school- 
houses  118 

In  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston  227 
In  State  Normal  School,  New  Haven  260,  261 
Pasteboard,  use  of,   in   Fmnish   log  school- 
houses  .......     52 

Pattern-making,  equipment  for,  at  Mechanic 

Arts  High  School,  Boston  .  231,  232,  234 
Paul  Revere  School,  Boston,  treatment  of  108, 109 

Plan  of -IIS 

View  of .116 

Bathing  facilities  introduced  into  281,282,283 

Paving  sidewalks  and  yard,  specifications  for  296 

Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  High  School        .        .         .  194 

Proposed  plans  for  .....  196 

Peirce  School,  Newton,  plan  of      .        .        .90 

View  of  main  entrance  of         ...     91 

Treatment  of 91,  94 

View  of  corridor  of 92 

Philadelphia,  perspective  sketch  of  De  Lancey 

School  in 133 

Plans  of  same  .....    134,  135 
Roof  playground  of  same         .         .        .  136 
Philbrick,    John    D.,  report  of,    on   Boston 

English  High  and  Latin  School  .    180-185 
Recommendation  of,  regarding   janitor 

service 283 

Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  establishment  of  178 
Physical   training,   provisions  for,   in   many 

New  York  City  schools  .  ,  .118 
Picture-moldings,  metal  rods  for  .  .  .10 
Picturesqueness    difficult   of    attainment    in 

school  designing 16 

Pierce  School,  Brookline,  plan  of   .        .        .89 

Treatment  of 89,  91 

Pile  driving,  specifications  for         .        .   290,  291 
Pine,  rift  Georgia  or  Florida,  for  uppier  floor- 
ing         8 

Plastermg,  specifications  for  .        .        .   300,  301 
Platform,  teacher's 10 


320 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 

Playground,  covered 2 

View  of,  Lycee  Molifere  ....  2 
Utilization  of  roofs  for  .  .  .  -13 
Attention  paid  to,  in  French  elementary 

schools <    .         -41 

Covered,   constant     feature    of     French 

schools 44 

Covered,     prevalent     in      Scandinavian 

country  schools 46 

Treatment  of,  in  English  schools  .  71,  72 
On  roof  of  Public  School  No.  147,  New 

York  City 121 

Deficient  in  area  and  in  decorative  treat- 
ment in  American  schools     .         .         .  139 
Playrooms,   basement    to  be   shut   off   from 

toilet  rooms 11 

Interior  warmed,  unknown  in  England  .  72 
Sentiment  in  New  York  opposed  to  use 

of  basements  for no 

Indoor,  treatment  of,  in  many  New  York 

City  schools 118 

Plenum  fans,  fresh  air  supplied  by  .   264,  266 

Plenum  fan  system,  consumes  less  fuel  than 

other  systems  of  indirect  heating  .  267 

Without  direct  radiation,  unsuitable  for 
schools  ......  268 

Indirect,  advantages  of,  over  direct  .  268 

Nowhere  so  much  used  as  in  the  United 

States 275 

Advantages     of,    being    recognized    in 
European  schools  ....  275 

Plumbing,  in  American  schools       .         .         .140 

Joints  of,  fixtures 276 

Fixtures  should  be  of  form  that  can  be 

easily  cleaned 277 

Polytechnic     schools,    German,    preparation 
for,  given  in  the  Realgymnasium  and 

Oberrealschule 142 

Porch,  desirability  of,  in  schoolhouses  .  .  4 
Portland  cement  should  be  used  in  construc- 
tion of  latrines  .  .  .  .  .  27S 
Posts  of  staircases,  form  of  .  .  .  .5 
Pottery,  special  schools  for  .  .  .  .241 
Power,  transmission  of,  in  manual  training 

schools 218 

Primary  grades,  with  kindergarten,  similar  in 

scope  to  English  " infant  classes "       .     Si 

Class  rooms  for,  in  normal  schools  .  25  i 

Primary  schools,  staircases  in  ...       5 

General  treatment  in  the  United  States,  82, 83 

Private     schools,     secondary    education     in 

England  largely  carried  on  by      .         .161 
Privy  vaults  should  be  absolutely  discarded    .  279 
Progymnasium,    classical    school,    with    six 

years'  course  (abolished  since  1891)      .  142 
Prussia,   northern   exposure  for  class  rooms 

favored  in      .         .         .         .         .        .       i 

Classification   of    secondary   schools  of, 
in  1882  and  in  1891       ....  142 

Pupils,  number  of,  in  average  grammar  grade 

class  rooms 140 

Maximum     number     of,     in      Prussian 
secondary  schools  .        .         .         -143 

Pupil-teachers,  efforts  to  improve  education 

of 176 

Regulations  concerning  proportion  of      .  1 76 
Pupil-teachers'  centers,  part  of  public  school 

system  of  England        .        .         .         .  1 70 
Radiating  surface,  amount  of,  necessary  for 

various  systems 2  74 

Radiators,  aesthetic  objections  to    .        .        .  268 


Pages. 
Realgymnasium,   Latin    but    not   Greek  in- 
cluded in  curriculum  of         .         .         .  142 
Present  status  of      ...         .    142,  143 
Ample  provision    in,    for    teaching   the 

sciences 143 

Plans  of 156,  165 

Realschule,  non-classical  schools,  with  seven 

years'  course  (abolished  since  1891)      .  142 
Plans  of   .        .        .     148,153,1^4,159,163 
Red  Norway  pine,  usual  material  for  flooring 

in  Great  Britain   .        .        .        .        .71 

Registers,  position  of 270 

Regulations  for    school  buildings,   not   pre- 
scribed by  law  in  Scandinavia       .         .     46 
Renaissance  forms,  employment  of         .        .16 
Resting  rooms.     See  emergency  rooms. 
Rindge,  Frederick  H.,  foundsr  of  Cambridge 

Manual  Training  School      .        .        .221 
Risers,  height  of      ......       c 

Risley,  Dr.  Samuel  D.,  recommendations  of, 

concerning  area  of  class  rooms     .        .  130 
Robert  Gould   Shaw   School,  Boston,  treat- 
ment of         .....    103,  104 

Plan  of 107 

View  of 108 

Roger   Ludlow   Grammar  School,  Windsor, 

Conn.,  plan  and  view  of        .        .        .86 
Rolling  partitions.     See  Partitions,  movable. 
Roofing,  specifications  for       ....  299 

Roofs,  protection  of 13 

Utilization  of,  for  playgrounds        .        .     13 
Treatment  of   .        .        .        .        .       16,  17 
Advantage  of,  for  playgrounds         .         .122 
Rouen,  France,  plan  of  school  for  apprentices 

in 244 

Treatment  of  same  ....  245,  247 
Roxbury  Latin  School,  establishment  of  .  178 
Royal  Lancastrian  Society  .  .  .  .66 
Royal   Weaving   School,   Crefeld,  Germany, 

plans  of 248,  249 

Rural  schools,  co-education  permitted  in,  in 

Continental  Europe      ....       6 
Russian  school  system,  Finland  independent 

of 46 

St.  John's  School,  Basel,  plan  of     .        .        -3° 

Treatment  of 3i>  33 

St.  Louis,   Mo.,  schoolhouses  of,  now   built 

wholly  of  incombustible  materials         .     95 
Treatment  of  Eugene  Field  School  in     .     94 

Plan  of  same 96 

Plan  of  Sherman  School  in      .        .        -97 
Plan  of  Eliot  School  in    .         .         .         .98 

View  of  same 99 

Treatment   of    manual    training  school 

in 216,  218 

Plans  of  same 217 

Dr.    Woodward's  criticism  on    plan  of 

same 218, 219 

St.    Paul,   near    Hamburg,   plan    of    Seiler- 

strasse  School  in  .         .         .         .         -31 
Treatment  of  same  .         .         .         -3^)33 

Elevation  of  same 32 

Salaries,  English  government  ceased  to  pay, 

to  individual  teachers   .         .         .         .176 
Salem,  Mass.,  plan  of  State  Normal  School  in,  252 

Treatment  of  same 253 

Salles  d'Asile.     See  Infants'  schools. 
Salomen,   originator   of   Naasche  system   of 

Sloyd    . 50 

Salzwedel,  Prussia,  plan  of  Gymnasium  in     .147 

Treatment  of  same 149 

Sand,  specifications  for 293 


INDEX. 


321 


Pages. 
Sanitary  police,  German  .         .        .        .       i 

Sanitation,  employment  of  expert  service  in 

plans  for 263 

Sash,  comparative  advantages  of  hung  and 

casement 7 

Saw  work,  provisions  for,  at  Mechanic  Arts 

High  School,  Boston    .        .        .        -231 
Scandinavia,    precautions    regarding    school 

sites  in i 

Use  of  school  gardens  in  .  .       .        .2 

Covered  playgrounds  in    .  .        .         .2 

Absence  of  official  regulations  governing 

construction  of  schools  in  .  .  .46 
School  buildings  in,  less  highly  developed 

than  Teutonic  and  Swiss  .  .  -65 
Elementary  schools  of  .  .  .  45-65 
Assembly  halls  seldom  found  in  schools 

of 123 

Requirements    as    to    shower-baths    in 
many  schools  of    .         .         .         .         .124 

Position    of     windows    in     elementary 
schools  of      .....        .  136 

Scholarships,  for  encouragement  of  secondary 

education  in  England  .         .         .         .169 

School  administration,  mistaken  economy  in    140 
School  for  apprentices,  Rouen,  plans  of  .  244 

Treatment  of 245,  247 

School  gardens,  Scandinavian  ...      2 

Almost  unknown  in  the  United  States,  86, 139 
"  Schoolroom  system  "  as  distinguished  from 

separate  class  systems  ...       79,  80 
Schoolrooms  seating  seventy  or  more  pupils, 
tendency     toward,    in     recent     high 

schools 210,  211 

School  yard,  enclosure  of        ....       3 
Schools   Inquiry   Commission,  recommenda- 
tions of 161 

Scranton,  Pa.,  provisions  for  bathing  in  High 

School  at       .        .        .        .        .        .281 

Screens,  use  of,  to  separate  sexes  in  some 

French  elementary  schools   .        .        .42 
Ingenious  arrangement  of,  in  Winthrop 
School,  New  London    .         .         .         .89 

Seats,  bank  arrangement  of,  in  some  English 

Infant  Schools       .         .         .         .         .68 

Seaver,  Edwin  P.,  superintendent  of  Boston 
schools,  recommendations  of,  regard- 
ing    manual     training     in     grammar 

schools 88 

Opinion   of,  regarding  industrial  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States     .        .        .  250 
Secondary  schools,  early  German    .        .        .  142 
Not  yet   thoroughly  organized  in  Eng- 
land       160,  161 

Recommendation  for  three  grades  of,  in 

England 161 

Many  English,  under  authority  of   De- 
partment of  Science  and  Art         .        .  164 
Effect  of  Technical  Instruction  Acts  on 
English         .  ■      .        .        .        .        .  164 

Tuition  fees  charged  in,  in  England  and 
Wales   .......  169 

Plan  for  national  system  of,  in  England  .  169 
Separate  graded  class  system.     See  Graded 

class  system. 
Separate  schools,  for  two  elementary  grades, 

advantages  and  disadvantages  of  .      81,  82 
Separation  of  the  sexes,  method  of,  in  some 

French  elementary  schools  .        .        .42 
Rigid  in  Scandinavia       .        .        .        .46 

Sewall  primary  school,  Brookline,  plan  of      .    83 
General  treatment  of        .        .        .        .85 


Sewall  primary  school,  Brookline,  toilet  room 

"towers"  in  .....     85 

Sewing,  provision  for  instruction  in,  in  some 

American  schools     .         .        .        .  86, 87 
Room  for,  in   grammar  schools,  recom- 
mended by  Superintendent  Seaver       .     88 
Rooms  for,  in  New  York  City  schools     .  118 
Sherman  School,  St.  Louis,  plan  of        .        -97 
Shops,  should  be  separated  from  class  rooms 

in  manual  training  scliools  .         .        .219 
Shower-baths,  pupils  of   many  German   and 

Scandinavian  schools  required  to  take    124 
Sick  rooms.     See  emergency  rooms. 
Single-room  schools.     See  one-room  schools. 
Sinks,  preferable  to  set  bowls,  in  schools        .  278 

Site  for  schools i 

Sisters  of  the  religious  orders,  Salles  d'Asile 

usually  conducted  by    .        .        .        -43 
Slate,    advantages    of,   for    construction    of 

urinals 277,  278 

Slate,  black,  best  material  for  blackboards  .  9 
Slate  work,  interior,  specifications  for  .  298,  299 
Sloyd,  in  Scandinavian  elementary  schools  49,  50 
Requirements  of  room  fitted  for  .  50,51 
Small  schools,  relatively  expensive  .        -14 

Smoke,  leakage  of,  from  hot  air  furnaces        .  267 
Soil  disposal,  constant  ventilation  should  be 

maintained  with  all  systems  of     .        .276 

Soil  pipe,  should  be  subjected  to  water  test    .  276 

South  Boston  High  School,  plans  of      .        .  208 

Lockers  for  outside  clothing  in        .        .210 

Double  class  rooms  in      .        .        .         .210 

Spalenschule,  Basel,  plan  of    .        .        .        .24 

Print  of 26 

Treatment  of 28 

Spillepe,  agitation  by,  for  establishment  of 

non-classical  high  schools     .         .         .  142 
Springfield      High     School,      treatment 

of 194,  199,  202 

Plans  of 197,  198 

Change  in  plan  of  construction  of  .         -199 

View  of 199 

Staircases,  protection  of  ....       5 

Construction  of 5 

Width  of 6 

Usually  of  stone,  in  English  schools       .     71 

Specifications  for     ....   298,  304 

State  Industrial  School,  Innsbruck,  plan  of   .  243 

Treatment  of 245 

State   Normal   School,  Lowell,  Mass.,  view 

and  treatment  of  .        .        .        .         -255 

Plans  of 256 

State   Normal  School,  New   Haven,  Conn., 

treatment  of  .        .        .    255, 258-262 

Plans  of -257 

Perspective  sketch  of       ...        .  258 
State  Normal  School,  North  Adams,  Mass., 

treatment  of  ....   253,  255 

Plans  of 254 

State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass.,  plans  of  252 

Treatment  of 253 

Steam  heating,  most   popular  in   American 

schools 271 

Description  of  gravity  system  of      .  271,  272 
Combination  of,  and  hot  water  heating 

used  in  some  recent  New  York  schools.  272 
Usually  used  in  European  schools  .        .275 
Steel  skeleton  frames   more  desirable  than 
masonry  construction  for  four  stories 
or  more         .        .        .         .        .        .110 

Steel  work,  specifications  for  .        .        .   297,  29S 
Steel-working,  special  schools  for   .        .        .  241 


322 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 
Stepney,  London,  plan  of  Board  School  in  .  67 
Stettin,  view  of  Konig  Wilhelm  Gymnasium 

in 149 

Plans  and  treatment  of  same   .         .         -150 
View  of  State  Gymnasium  in  .         .         .158 
Stock  room  of  Mechanic  Arts  High  School, 

Boston  .......  240 

Stockholm,  well    supplied    with  elementary 

school  dining  halls        .         .         .         .48 

Treatment  and  plan  of  Johannes  School 

in 56 

Elevation  of  same    .  ....     57 

Municipal  baths  of 281 

Stone,  North  River,  specifications  for  .  .  296 
Stone-cutters,  special  schools  for  .  .  .241 
Stonework,  specifications  for ....  296 
Stoves,  objections  to  use  of  .  .  .  .  265 
Used  in  most  European  schools  .  .  275 
Straw-plaiting,  special  schools  for  .         .         .241 

Stud  partitions 12,  14 

Stuttgart,  plan  of  school  in     .        .        .        -139 
Unscientific  lighting  of  same  .        .        .40 
Sunday  schools,  in  Germany,  provide  instruc- 
tion for  apprentices  and  journeymen    .  240 
Sweden,  efforts  to  extend  popular  education 

in 45 

Two  systems  of  Sloyd  training  in   .        -50 
See  also  Scandinavia. 
Swimming,  instruction  in,  obligatory  in  cer- 
tain Swedish  schools    ....  280 
Switzerland,    school    yards    rarely  enclosed 

in 3 

Vestibules  required  in  schoolhouses  of     .      4 
Co-education  in,  and    the  planning  of 

schools 6 

Elementary  schools    of,  follow  general 

Teutonic  plan 20 

Co-education    common     in    elementary 

schools  of 20 

Two  or  three  divisions  in   elementary 

schools  of      ....        .       20, 2 1 
Much  attention    paid    to    architectural 

effect  in  schools  of        .        .        .        -39 
Assembly   hall   provided    in    nearly  all 

large  schools  of     .        .        .        .        -123 
Systems    of    ventilation    and    warming 

in 123,274 

Position    of    windows    in    elementary 

schools  of              .....  136 
Fewer  pupils  allowed  to  class  room  in     .  140 
Secondary    schools    of,    not    classified 
according  to  present  Prussian  system  .  143 
Taxation,  for  support  of  education  in  Massa- 
chusetts          j»8 

Teachers,  private  rooms  for    .        .        .        .11 
Living  apartments  for,  in  Scandinavian 

elementary  schools        .         .         .         .46 
In  German  secondary  schools  .        .        -143 
Training  schools  for         .         .         .         •251 
Technical    Education     Board    of    London, 

scholarships  given  by    .        .        .        .  i6g 
Technical  Instruction  Acts,  grants  established 

by,  England 164 

Technical  schools,  established  by  Technical 

Instruction  Acts,  England    .         .         .164 
Not  to  be  confounded  with  manual  train- 
ing schools    .        .        .        .        .        •  215 
Temperature,  control  of,  less  satisfactory  with 

furnace  ......  267 

Maximum 263 

Usual,  in  American  schools     .        .        .  264 
In  English  schools 264 


Pages. 
Temperature,  control  of  readier,  by  hot  water 

system  of  heating         .        .         .        .272 

Tempering  coil 266 

Terra-cotta  lumber,  for  interior  partitions      .     12 
Teutonic  countries,  development  of    school 

planning  in 17 

Influence  of,  on  planning  of  English  and 
American  schools  .        .        .        -177 

Thermometer,    modification    of   alarm,   sug- 
gested for  schools  ....  269 
Set  in  corridor  walls  ....  269 
Tin-smithing,  special  schools  for    .        .        .241 
Tochterschule,  characteristics  of,  like  those 

of    other    German  secondary   schools  143 
See  also  Basel. 

Toilet  rooms  . 11 

Arrangement  of,  in  some  New  York  City 

schools 121 

Unusual  arrangement  of,  in  school  at 

Leitomischl 153 

Arrangement   of,  in   English    High  and 

Latin  School,  Boston   .        .        .        .184 
Downward  ventilation  especially  adapted 

to 265 

Ventilation  of  .         .         .         .         .         .  271 

Usually  in  separate,  unventilated  build- 
ing in  European  schools       .        .        .  275 
Regulation  of   Board  of  Education   of 

England  and  Wales  regarding      .        .  275 
Usually     in     basement    in     American 
schools  .......  275 

Should  be  heated  and  ventilated      .        .276 
See     also     Mezzanine    toilet     rooms ; 
"  Towers." 
Toledo.    Ohio,    treatment    of     Auburndale 

School  in 97 

Plan  of  same 99 

View  of  same   ......  100 

Waite  School  in 98 

View  of  same  .  .  .  •  ,.  .  .  103 
Lagrange  School  in  ....    98 

Plan  of  same loi 

View  of  same 102 

"Cart-wheel"  plan  tried  in  .  .'  .  137 
Central  High  School  in  .  .  .  .211 
Plan  of  same    .        .      ■  .        .        .        .  212 

View  of  same 213 

Specially  designed   school    for    manual 

training  in 216 

No  plans  of  same 221 

Rules  of    School    Board   of,   regarding 
janitor  service   ....       283,  284 
Tool  room,  equipment  of,  at  Mechanic  Arts 

High  School,  Boston    .        .        .   230,  231 
Tools,  supplied  to  pupils  of  Mechanic  Arts 

High  School,  Boston:  wood-working  .  238 

Cutting 228 

Carving 228-230 

Turning -231 

Forging    .         .         .         .         .         .   234,235 

Machine 236-240 

"  Towers,"  toilet  rooms  in      .        .        .       33,  83 
Town    school    system     supersedes    district 

school  system,  in  Massachusetts  .     79 

Trade  schools  not  to  be   confounded  with 

manual  training  schools        .         .         .215 
Trades,  teaching    of,    not    the    design    in 

Mechanic  Arts  High  Schools       .        -215 
Instruction  in  particular,  given  by  Ger- 
man special  industrial  schools      .  240,  242 

Transoms,  objections  to 7 

Treads,  covering  for 5 


INDEX. 


323 


Pages. 

Trees  in  school  yards 4 

Trondhjem,  Norway,  treatment  of  school  in  56,  57 

Plan  of  same 57 

Tuition  fees,  in  German  elementary  schools   .     18 
In   secondary   schools  of   England  and 

Wales 169 

Turnhalle,    invariable    feature   of    Teutonic 

secondary  schools  .        .        .        -144 

See  also  Gymnasium. 
Turning,  provisions  for  teaching,  in  manual 

training  schools 215 

Tools  for,  supplied  to  pupils  of  Mechanic 
Arts  High  School,  Boston    .         .         .231 

Special  schools  for 241 

Two-room  school  at  Lindholmen,  Sweden      .     53 

Treatment  of 53)  54 

United  States,  area  of  school  sites  in      .        .1 
School   yards   rarely  enclosed  by  brick 

walls  in  .        .     '  .        .        .        -3 

Basement  entrances  in  schoolhouses  of    .      4 

Width  of  staircases  in  schools  of     .        .6 

Co-education    in,   and    the    planning  of 

schools  ......      6 

Public  school  system  established  in  .     78 

Systems    of     ventilation    and    warming 
highly  developed  in       .         .        .        -123 
Universities,  German,  students  of,  prepared 

only  in  the  Gymnasium  .  .  142 

Untere  Kealschule,  Basel,  illustration  of        .27 

Urinals,  illustration  of  cross  section  of  slate  276 

Sloping  slab  preferable  to  bowls  for         .  277 

Construction  of         .         .  .  •'^■17 

Illustration  of  flushing-tank  for        .         .  277 

Illustration     of     section    of     perforated 

supply  pipe  and  slate  trough  for  .         .278 

Utility  and  beauty,  possibility  of  combining  16, 17 

Vaalerengens  School,  Christiania,  treatment 

and  plan  of  .         .         .  .       .        -5^ 

Value,  permanent,  of  a  building      .        .        .14 
Vent  ducts,  with  direct  heating,  give  unsatis- 
factory ventilation  ....  266 

Vent  flues 264,  265 

Ventilation,  in  an  Ohio  schoolhouse       .        -14 
Highly  developed  system  of,  in  Switzer- 
land and  America  .         .         .         -123 
General     superiority    of,    in    American 
schools          .        .         ....  139 

Arrangement  for,  in  English  High  and 

Latin  School,  Boston  .  .  .  183,  184 
Unsatisfactoriness  of  same  .  .  .  187 
Employment  of  expert  service  on  plans 

for 263 

Two  systems  of 264 

Provisions  for,  in  summer        .        .        .270 
Of  Swiss  schools  superior  to  other  Con- 
tinental schools    .         .        .        .        -275 
Vermin,  protection  against      .         .         .         9,  12 
Vestibule,  desirability  of,  in  schoolhouses       .      4 
Vevey,  Switzerland,  treatment  of  school  in   36,  37 

Plan  of  same 2>7 

Vienna,  illustration  of  aula  of  Imperial  Gym- 
nasium at 144 

Plans  of  Akademische  Gymnasium  in    .  181 
General  characteristics  of   school  build- 
ings in  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  182 

Village  schools.     See  Elementary  schools. 
Volksschule,      non-preparatory     elementary 

school 18 

Vorschule,  preparatory  to  secondary  schools       18 
Waite  school,  Toledo,  exceptional  in  method 

of  lighting  class  roems  >  .  .98 
View  of 103 


Wales,  area  required  for  school  premises  in 

Requirements  regarding  staircases  in       .       5 
Elementary    education    free     and    com- 
pulsory in 169 

Fees  charged  for  secondary  education  in  169 

Walls,  plastering  of,  should  be  smooth  .        .      9 
Painting  of       .         .         ,         ,         .         .10 
Construction  of,  in  Finnish  log  school- 
houses  52,  53 

Treatment  of,  in  London  Board  Schools       70 

Wardrobes,  teacher's  .  .  .  .  .10 
Cost  of  pupils'  .         .         .         .         .10 

In  best  American   schools  have  outside 

light 83 

See  also  coat  rooms. 

Warmed,  fresh    air,  ampler    supply    of,    in 

American  schools  than  elsewhere         .  139 

Warming.     See  heating. 

Washing  of  air  supply,  apparatus  for     .         .  271 

Watch  and  Clock  Making  School,  Paris,  per- 
spective sketch  of  ....  246 

Watch-making,  special  schools  for  .         .         .  241 

Water-closet  ranges,  iron,  objections  to  .         .  279 

Water-closets,  separate 278 

Water-color    tints,    use    of,  on    schoolroom 

walls     . 10 

Weaving,  special  schools  for  ....  241 
School  at  Miilheim,  plans  for  .  .  .  245 
School  at  Miilheim,  treatment  of  .  .  247 
Royal,  School  at  Crefeld,  Germany  .  248,  249 

Wiborg,  Finland,  plan  of  school  in  .  .  64 
Treatment  of  same  .  .  .  .  64, 65 
View  of  same 65 

Width  of  class  rooms,  in  Continental  Europe  126 

In  United  States 126 

In  Germany '  .  127 

In  best  grammar  schools  in  the  United 

States 130 

Recommendations  of  Dr.  Risley  concern- 
ing          130 

Difficulty  of  lighting  rooms  28  ft.  wide 

133)  136,  137,  141 

Excess  in  cost  of  rooms  of  this  width      .  140 
Willemer  and  Frankensteiner  School,  Frank- 
fort, plan  of  .         .         .         .         .         -34 

Treatment  of 35 

Williams  School,  Boston,  plan  of   .         .         •     T^ 
View  of    .        .        .        .        .        .         -79 

Winders,  improper  for  school  staircases  .      6 

Window    sills,  height  of,  in  London   Board 

Schools 71 

Windows,  of  class  rooms         .         .         .         •  6, 7 
Treatment  of    .         .         .         .         .         .16 

In    corner  rooms  of    Swiss  elementary 

schools 39 

Best  position  of  ....  .  136 
Wrong  arrangement  of  .  .  .  .  137 
Arrangement  of,  in   English   High  and 

Latin  School,  Boston   .        .        .        .183 
See  also  light ;  lighting. 
Windsor,   Conn.,   plan   and  view   of    Roger 

Ludlow  Grammar  School  in         .        .86 
Wire-lathing,  superiority  of,  to  wood-lathing, 

for  ceilings 12 

Winterthur,  Switzerland,  plan  of  school  in     .    35 

Treatment  of  same 3^ 

Arrangement  of  windows  in  school  at      .     37 

.Plan  of  same 3^ 

Winthrop   Grammar  School,   New   London, 

Conn.,  plan  of       .         .         .         .         •     ^7 

View  of 88 

Ingenious  arrangement  of  screens  in        .    89 


324 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pages. 
Women,  trade  and  industrial  schools  for,  in 

Germany 242 

Instruction  given   in   industrial   schools 

for 247 

Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  Auxerre,  France, 

plan  of 261 

Treatment  of 262 

Women  Teachers'  Seminary,  Berlin,  plans  of 

.   259,  260 
Follows  plan  of  Realgymnasium      .         .  262 
Wood  carving,   provisions    for    teaching,   in 

manual  training  schools        .         .         •215 
Wood-lathing,  inferiority  of,  to  wire-lathing, 

for  ceilings 12 

Wood-turning,  equipment  for,  at    Mechanic 

Arts  High  School,  Boston    .    231,232,234 
Wood-working,  tools  used  for         .        .        -So 


Pages. 
Wood-working,     room     for,      in     grammar 
schools,  recommended  by  Superinten- 
dent Seaver 88 

Equipment  for,  at  Mechanic  Arts  High 
School,  Boston      ....   228,  234 
Woodward,  C.  M.,  criticism  of,  on   plan  of 

St.  Louis  Manual  Training  school  218,  219 
Workshops,  some  French  and  German  indus- 
trial schools  provided  only  with   .        .  242 
Many  French  industrial  schools  consist 

only  of 247 

Provision  for,  in  State  Industrial  School 

at  InnsbiUck 245 

In  School  for  Apprentices,  at  Rouen       .  245 

Worms,  plan  of  industrial  school  in        .        .  242 

Treatment  of  same  ....  244,  245 


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